Alexandria history

Alexandria is a city with a rich history, established as a great centre of the Hellenistic world and retaining its significance for millennia. Its past is a story of cultural fusion, ambitious projects, and strategic importance at the crossroads of trade routes.

Foundation and Early Period

The city was founded by Alexander the Great in 332-331 BC on the site of a small Egyptian settlement called Rhakotis. According to the plan, Alexandria was to become the new capital of his vast empire and a major port on the Mediterranean Sea. After Alexander's death, Egypt came under the rule of his general, Ptolemy I Soter, who made Alexandria the capital of his kingdom and founded the Ptolemaic dynasty. During this period, the city grew rapidly, attracting settlers from all over the Hellenistic world, including Greeks, Jews, and Egyptians.

Key Factors of Development

Alexandria owes its rapid rise to several factors:

• Geographical Location: The city was strategically situated in the Nile Delta, with access to the Mediterranean Sea and Egypt's inland waterways via Lake Mariout. This made it an ideal crossroads for trade between Europe, Asia, and Africa.
• Trade and Economy: Alexandria became a major hub of international trade; vast flows of goods passed through its port, primarily grain, which was vital for many states, including Rome.
• Political Power: As the capital of the powerful Ptolemaic Kingdom, the city held immense political influence in the Mediterranean.

Cultural and Scientific Heritage

In the Hellenistic era, Alexandria was not only an economic hub but also the leading intellectual centre of the ancient world. It was here that two legendary landmarks were created:

• Library of Alexandria: The largest repository of knowledge in antiquity, founded under the Ptolemies. It was part of the Musaeum (Temple of the Muses) — a prototype of the modern academy of sciences, where prominent scholars such as Euclid and Eratosthenes lived and worked.
• Pharos Lighthouse: One of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, a gigantic structure over 110 metres high, the light of which guided ships into the harbour.

Thanks to the fusion of Greek, Egyptian, and other cultures, Alexandria became the first cosmopolitan metropolis in history, where science, art, and philosophy flourished.

Chronology of Key Events

• 332–331 BC — Alexander the Great founds the city, intended to be the new capital of his empire and a major Mediterranean port.
• Early 3rd century BC — Foundation of the Library of Alexandria and the Musaeum, turning the city into the largest scientific and cultural centre of the ancient world.
• Around 280 BC — Completion of the Pharos Lighthouse, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, which served as a landmark for ships.
• 48–47 BC — During Julius Caesar's visit, a fire occurs in the city, resulting, according to some accounts, in the burning of part of the Library of Alexandria's scrolls.
• 30 BC — After the defeat of Mark Antony and Cleopatra, the city is conquered by Octavian, and Egypt becomes a Roman province.
• 391 AD — As part of the struggle against paganism, the Serapeum temple, which housed part of the Library of Alexandria's collections, is destroyed by order of Patriarch Theophilus.
• 641–642 AD — Arab troops led by Amr ibn al-As conquer Alexandria, ending Byzantine rule in Egypt.
• 1326 — A powerful earthquake finally destroys the remains of the Pharos Lighthouse.
• 1517 — Egypt becomes part of the Ottoman Empire, and Alexandria, having lost its former significance, turns into a small port.
• 1798 — Troops of Napoleon Bonaparte capture the city during the Egyptian Campaign, marking the beginning of renewed European interest in the region.
• Early 19th century — Under the ruler Muhammad Ali, the city's revival begins: the Mahmoudiyah Canal is built, connecting Alexandria to the Nile, and a new shipyard is created.
• 1882 — The British fleet bombards Alexandria, marking the beginning of the British occupation of Egypt.
• 2002 — The modern Bibliotheca Alexandrina opens, built near the site of its ancient predecessor, as a symbol of the revival of the city's scientific and cultural heritage.

The history of Alexandria is a series of rises and falls, during which the city repeatedly changed its appearance and significance. Key transformations were associated with both grandiose construction projects and global political and cultural shifts.

Major Milestones in Alexandria's Development

• Foundation of the City (332–331 BC). Established by Alexander the Great, Alexandria was initially planned as the ideal Hellenistic polis. Its regular layout, designed by the architect Deinocrates, became a model of urban planning, while its strategic location ensured rapid economic growth and transformation into the main port of the Mediterranean.
• Creation of a Scientific and Cultural Centre (3rd century BC). The founding of the Musaeum and the legendary Library of Alexandria turned the city into the intellectual capital of the ancient world. This attracted prominent scientists and thinkers, cementing Alexandria's status as a centre of knowledge and enlightenment for many centuries.
• Transition to Roman Rule (30 BC). After being conquered by Octavian, the city lost its status as the capital of an independent kingdom but gained new economic importance as the "Granary of Rome". Control over Egyptian grain supplies made Alexandria a vital trade and logistics hub of the Roman Empire.
• Arab Conquest and Decline (from the 7th century). With the arrival of the Arabs in 641, the capital of Egypt was moved, marking the beginning of Alexandria's gradual decline. The city lost its former political and economic influence, turning into a small port town by the end of the Middle Ages.
• Revival under Muhammad Ali (Early 19th century). Ruler Muhammad Ali initiated a large-scale modernisation that brought life back to the city. The construction of the Mahmoudiyah Canal, connecting Alexandria to the Nile, and the creation of a modern shipyard revived it as a key trade and industrial centre of Egypt.
• Cosmopolitan Flourishing (Late 19th – Mid 20th century). During this period, Alexandria became a thriving international city where Egyptians, Greeks, Italians, Jews, and people of other nations lived and did business side by side. This "Golden Age" left a rich architectural and cultural heritage that defined the city's unique appearance.
• Nationalisation and the End of the Cosmopolitan Era (1950s). The policy of nationalisation following the 1952 revolution led to the mass departure of the foreign population. This event radically changed the social and cultural landscape of the city, ending its multinational era.
• Modern Cultural Renaissance (2002). The opening of the new Bibliotheca Alexandrina became a powerful symbol of the city's resurgence as a cultural and educational centre of international importance. This project not only paid tribute to the great past but also became a point of attraction for tourists, scholars, and artists from all over the world.

Alexandria's architectural landscape is a unique canvas bearing the marks of great civilisations: from the ancient Greeks and Romans to Ottoman rulers and European architects of the modern age. Each historical period gifted the city with iconic buildings and urban planning solutions that formed its unique character.

Hellenistic and Roman Eras: Grandeur and Order

Founded in 332 BC, Alexandria was built according to a plan by the architect Deinocrates that was innovative for its time. The city received a strict Hippodamian grid with wide streets intersecting at right angles, which became a model for many Hellenistic cities. This period gave the world two legendary structures: the majestic Pharos Lighthouse, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, and the grandiose Library of Alexandria. Although these structures have not survived, their greatness defined the city's status. In the Roman era, the architectural landscape was complemented by objects such as the Roman Amphitheatre and the monumental Pompey's Pillar, demonstrating the engineering prowess and power of the empire.

The Middle Ages and Ottoman Period: Defence and Islamic Motifs

After the Arab conquest and in subsequent centuries, the urban planning emphasis shifted from monumentality to functionality and defence. A prime example of this era is the Citadel of Qaitbay, erected in the 15th century on the ruins of the Pharos Lighthouse. The fortress became a vital fortification on the Mediterranean coast. During this same period, mosques built in traditional Islamic styles appeared in the city. One of the most significant is the Abu al-Abbas al-Mursi Mosque, which, having undergone several reconstructions, acquired its current appearance with elements of Ayyubid architecture.

Cosmopolitan Era (19th – Early 20th Century): European Chic

The revival of Alexandria under Muhammad Ali in the 19th century opened a new chapter in its architectural history. The city turned into a prosperous cosmopolitan centre, which was reflected in its development. The central districts and the Corniche were built up with elegant buildings in European styles: Italian Renaissance, Beaux-Arts, Art Nouveau, and Art Deco. This eclectic yet harmonious architecture, created by Italian, French, and Greek architects, formed the very image of the "Pearl of the Mediterranean" that still defines the look of Alexandria's historic centre. Iconic buildings of that time include the Montaza Palace and the former royal Royal Jewelry Museum, combining Neoclassical and Byzantine features.

Modern Architecture: A Look into the Future

The modern stage of Alexandria's architectural development symbolises the desire to connect a rich past with the future. Undoubtedly, the main symbol of this is the Bibliotheca Alexandrina, opened in 2002. This bold Postmodernist structure, designed in the shape of a giant solar disc tilted towards the sea, became not only a tribute to the ancient library but also a new cultural and architectural landmark of global significance for the city.

Notable Figures in the History of Alexandria

For centuries, Alexandria was a hub of science, culture, and politics, giving the world many geniuses and iconic figures. The city attracted the best minds of antiquity and became the birthplace of many modern figures.

• Ptolemy I Soter (c. 367–283 BC) — a general of Alexander the Great and founder of the Ptolemaic dynasty that ruled Egypt. He made Alexandria the capital and initiated the creation of the famous Library of Alexandria and the Musaeum — the largest scientific centre of the ancient world.
• Euclid (c. 325–265 BC) — an ancient Greek mathematician who lived and worked in Alexandria. His fundamental work "Elements" laid the foundations of geometry, which is still studied today, earning him the nickname "Father of Geometry".
• Eratosthenes of Cyrene (c. 276–194 BC) — a brilliant polymath: mathematician, astronomer, geographer, and poet. While heading the Library of Alexandria, he was the first in the world to calculate the Earth's radius with remarkable accuracy.
• Cleopatra VII (69–30 BC) — the last queen of Hellenistic Egypt from the Ptolemaic dynasty. Her reign and tragic fate, inextricably linked with Alexandria, became one of the most dramatic episodes in the city's history and marked the end of the Hellenistic era.
• Hypatia of Alexandria (c. 360–415 AD) — a Neoplatonist philosopher, mathematician, and astronomer. She was one of the first female scientists in history, taught at the Alexandrian school, and enjoyed great authority among both pagans and Christians. Her tragic death became a symbol of the end of the ancient intellectual tradition.
• Constantine Cavafy (1863–1933) — one of the greatest Greek poets of the modern era, who was born, lived almost his entire life, and died in Alexandria. His work is deeply imbued with the history and cosmopolitan spirit of the city, and his apartment has been turned into a museum.
• Gamal Abdel Nasser (1918–1970) — the second President of Egypt and a key figure in the modern history of the Arab world. He was born in Alexandria and led the 1952 revolution, which overthrew the monarchy and initiated large-scale transformations in the country.
• Omar Sharif (1932–2015) — a world-renowned Egyptian actor born in Alexandria. Winner of two Golden Globe Awards and an Oscar nominee, he became famous for his roles in cult films such as "Lawrence of Arabia" and "Doctor Zhivago".