Pompeii

Foundation and First Mentions

The history of Pompeii is rooted in deep antiquity. The city was founded by the Oscans, an Italic people, approximately in the 7th–6th centuries BC. Initially, it was a small settlement established on a solidified lava plateau at the mouth of the Sarno River. Thanks to its location, Pompeii quickly became an important hub where the interests of Greek colonists and Etruscans intersected, both of whom exerted significant influence on the early architecture and culture of the city.

Key Factors of Development

Pompeii's transformation into a prosperous city was driven by a combination of several strategic advantages:

• Geography and Natural Resources: Proximity to Mount Vesuvius ensured exceptionally fertile soil, ideal for agriculture. Its position on the shores of the Bay of Naples and the then-navigable Sarno River made the city a natural port.
• Trade: The city served as a commercial gateway for the inland areas of Campania. Goods for neighboring cities such as Nola and Nuceria passed through the local port, contributing to the accumulation of wealth.
• Political Power: After a period of Samnite rule (from the 5th century BC), the city fell under the Roman sphere of influence. Final integration occurred in 80 BC, when Lucius Cornelius Sulla founded the colony Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompeianorum here, granting the city the status and privileges of a Roman settlement.

Early Cultural and Economic Features

The economy of early Pompeii was built on agriculture and production. The city was famous for its wine and olive oil, which were exported far beyond the region. The production of garum—the famous fish sauce—also flourished here.

Culturally, Pompeii represented a unique blend of traditions. Before the arrival of the Romans, Oscan customs were combined with Hellenistic influences (theaters, temples). After final Romanization, the city acquired a classic Roman appearance with a forum, baths, an amphitheater, and paved streets, becoming a favorite holiday destination for the Roman nobility, who built luxurious villas here.

Chronology of Key Events

• 7th–6th centuries BC — The settlement is founded by the Oscans on a lava plateau at the mouth of the Sarno River.
• 5th century BC — The city comes under the control of the Samnites, leading to a significant expansion of its territory.
• 310 BC — The first documented mention of Pompeii in the context of the Second Samnite War.
• 89 BC — The city is besieged by the troops of Lucius Cornelius Sulla during the Social War.
• 80 BC — Pompeii officially becomes a Roman colony, receiving the name Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompeianorum.
• 59 AD — Mass riots in the amphitheater between the residents of Pompeii and Nuceria, leading to a ten-year ban on games by the Roman Senate.
• 62 AD — A devastating earthquake causes serious damage to buildings; restoration work continues for many years.
• 79 AD — A catastrophic eruption of Mount Vesuvius completely buries the city under a layer of volcanic ash and pumice.
• 1592 — Architect Domenico Fontana accidentally discovers the ruins while digging a canal, but excavations do not begin.
• 1748 — Official archaeological explorations begin by order of King Charles III of Naples.
• 1863 — Giuseppe Fiorelli introduces the revolutionary method of pouring plaster into the voids left by the bodies of the victims.
• 1997 — The Pompeii archaeological area is included in the UNESCO World Heritage list.

Stages of Urban and Cultural Development

The evolution of Pompeii reflects its journey from a strategic trade hub to a developed Roman city with infrastructure that was advanced for its time. Key milestones that defined the city's appearance and economy include:

• Samnite Monumentalism (2nd century BC): The period of the highest flowering of pre-Roman architecture. During this time, the center of public life was formed: the Basilica, the Large Theatre, and the Stabian Baths were built. The city took on the features of a Hellenistic polis with a regular layout.
• Roman Colonization (80 BC): After being granted colony status, the city underwent radical Latinization. The Amphitheatre—the oldest stone structure of its kind—was erected, along with the Small Theatre (Odeon). The Temple of Jupiter was rebuilt into a Capitolium, becoming a symbol of Roman power.
• The Augustan Engineering Revolution: At the beginning of the 1st century AD, the city was connected to the Serino aqueduct (Aqua Augusta). This allowed for the creation of a sophisticated water supply system, powering numerous street fountains, private homes, and the construction of the new Forum Baths.
• Industrialization of Production: By the mid-1st century AD, the city's economy shifted toward production. Numerous fulleries (fullonicae) for wool processing, industrial bakeries, and workshops for making garum (fish sauce) appeared, targeting export markets.
• Post-Seismic Transformation (62–79 AD): The earthquake of 62 AD triggered a process of reshaping the urban environment. Many luxurious private residences were divided into apartments or converted into workshops and taverns, indicating the growing activity of the merchant class.

Urban Structure and Planning

The architectural appearance of Pompeii is unique because it represents a "cross-section" of an ancient city from the 1st century AD, preserving layers of several previous eras. The layout is based on a combination of the chaotic development of the historical core and the strict geometric grid of the later districts.

The city's urban development can be divided into two key principles:

• The Old City (Altstadt): The southwestern part of Pompeii around the Forum has an irregular layout with narrow, winding streets. This is a legacy of the archaic period (Oscans and Etruscans), when the settlement developed spontaneously.
• The Hippodamian System: With the expansion of the city during the Samnite period, a regular Greek layout was applied. Streets intersect at right angles, forming blocks (insulae). The main axes were the wide thoroughfares: the decumani (east-west) and the cardo (north-south).

Architectural Eras and Styles

Since the city's life was cut short in 79 AD, common European styles like Gothic or Baroque are absent here. The architecture of Pompeii is an evolution from Hellenism to the Roman Imperial style.

• Samnite Period (Hellenism, 2nd century BC): The "Golden Age" of Pompeian architecture. Buildings were constructed from local tufa and limestone. During this period, Greek culture had a strong influence: peristyles (colonnaded courtyards) appeared in private houses, alongside monumental public buildings and theaters. Facades were often designed in a strict but elegant style (the so-called "First Style" of wall painting, imitating marble masonry).
• Roman Colonial Period (from 80 BC): With the arrival of the Romans, architecture became more utilitarian and large-scale. The active use of fired brick and Roman concrete began. This allowed for the construction of complex structures such as the vaults of the Amphitheatre and the domes of the Baths. The "Second" (architectural perspectives) and "Third" (ornamental) styles became widespread in decoration.
• Imperial Period and Reconstruction (62–79 AD): After the earthquake of 62 AD, the city turned into a massive construction site. Architecture became more eclectic, and many patrician mansions were converted for commercial needs. The interiors were dominated by the lush and imaginative "Fourth Style."

Iconic Structures Defining the City's Character

The architectural landscape of Pompeii was shaped around key public and private landmarks:

• The Forum: The heart of the city, surrounded by a two-story colonnade. The main temples (Temple of Jupiter, Temple of Apollo) and administrative buildings are concentrated here. The Forum demonstrates the transition from Samnite architecture to Roman monumentality.
• The House of the Faun: The largest and most luxurious private mansion in the city (an insula) occupying an entire block (about 3,000 m²). It is a perfect example of a Hellenistic palace with two atriums and two peristyles, showcasing the wealth of the local pre-Roman aristocracy.
• The Amphitheatre: The oldest surviving stone amphitheater in the Roman world (80 BC). Located on the outskirts and built into the city walls, it is an example of early Roman engineering, as it lacks the underground chambers characteristic of the later Colosseum.
• The Baths (Stabian and Forum Baths): Complex engineering structures with hypocaust systems (underfloor heating). They demonstrate the high level of urban infrastructure development and the importance of hygiene and leisure in the lives of Pompeians.

Witnesses and Chroniclers of the Catastrophe

• Pliny the Elder (Gaius Plinius Secundus) — A Roman polymath, naturalist, and commander of the fleet at Misenum. During the eruption of 79 AD, he led ships to the shore to rescue people but died from inhaling volcanic gases at Stabiae. His death became a symbol of scientific courage and duty.
• Pliny the Younger (Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus) — A politician and writer, and nephew of Pliny the Elder. While in Misenum, he witnessed the disaster. It is his two letters to the historian Tacitus that provide a detailed description of the eruption of Vesuvius, which is why this type of volcanic activity is now called "Plinian."

Prominent Residents of Ancient Pompeii

• Marcus Holconius Rufus — An influential politician, military tribune, and patron of the city during the era of Emperor Augustus. He was elected duumvir (the highest administrative office) five times. He funded a large-scale reconstruction of the Large Theatre, for which he was honored with a reserved seat in the auditorium and a statue.
• Eumachia — A public figure and priestess of the goddess Venus, the patroness of Pompeii. She came from a wealthy family of brick and amphora manufacturers. With her own funds, she built a massive structure on the Forum (the Building of Eumachia), which served as an exchange for fullers and wool merchants, demonstrating the significant role of women in the city's economy.
• Lucius Caecilius Iucundus — A successful banker and auctioneer. A unique archive of 153 wax tablets was found in his house, recording trade deals, leases, and IOUs. These documents have become an invaluable source of information about commercial life and prices in 1st-century Pompeii.
• Aulus Umbricius Scaurus — The largest producer of garum (fish sauce) in the region. Mosaics in his house depicting branded sauce jars indicate that he created a true brand known far beyond Campania and amassed a vast fortune from it.

Researchers and Discoverers

• Domenico Fontana — A famous Italian architect of the late Renaissance. In 1592, while directing the construction of an underground canal from the Sarno River, he accidentally came across ancient walls and frescoes. However, Fontana did not realize the scale of the find and ordered the ruins to be covered back up, leaving the city hidden for another century and a half.
• Giuseppe Fiorelli — The director of excavations in the second half of the 19th century. He systematized the research by dividing the city into regions and blocks. His main contribution was the method of pouring plaster into the voids left by decomposed bodies in the ash layer. Thanks to Fiorelli, the world saw the famous plaster casts of the victims of Pompeii.