Tarsus

Tarsus, one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, has a history rooted deep in the millennia. The first settlements at its site on the fertile Cilician Plain appeared as far back as the Neolithic era. Thanks to its strategic location, the city has been an important center of civilization for centuries, surviving many eras and rulers.

The first urban settlements in the territory of modern Tarsus date back to Hittite times, when the city was known as "Tar-sha." In subsequent centuries, it was under the rule of the Assyrians, who, according to some sources, rebuilt it in the 7th century BC. Later, Tarsus became the capital of one of the Cilician kingdoms, joined the Achaemenid Persian Empire, and with the arrival of Alexander the Great in 333 BC, the era of Hellenization began for the city.

Tarsus owed its prosperity in antiquity to several key factors:

• Geographical Position: The city is located on the Berdan River (known as Cydnus in antiquity), which provided access to the Mediterranean Sea, and at the intersection of major trade routes from Anatolia to Syria.
• Trade: Tarsus was a major commercial hub, especially during the Roman Empire, when caravans passed through it and lively trade was conducted in its port.
• Political Influence: During the Roman era, the city became the capital of the province of Cilicia and was of great importance in Rome's wars with the Parthian Empire, even briefly bearing the name Juliopolis in honor of Julius Caesar.

In Hellenistic times and under Roman rule, Tarsus developed into one of the leading intellectual and cultural centers of the ancient world, rivaling the schools in Athens and Alexandria. The city is also famous as the birthplace of the Apostle Paul. It is here, according to legend, that the iconic first meeting between Queen Cleopatra and the Roman general Mark Antony took place in 41 BC, when she arrived in the city on a luxuriously decorated ship.

Key Milestones in the History of Tarsus

The history of Tarsus spans several millennia. The city has experienced rises and falls, the succession of civilizations and rulers, each leaving a mark on its rich heritage.

• C. 6000 BC — Emergence of the first Neolithic settlements on the site of the modern city.
• C. 1600 BC — The city, known as Tar-sha, becomes an important center of the Hittite Kingdom.
• 696 BC — The Assyrian King Sennacherib conquers and rebuilds the city, strengthening it as a strategic port.
• 333 BC — Alexander the Great occupies Tarsus, marking the beginning of a period of Hellenistic influence and cultural flourishing.
• 67 BC — Tarsus becomes part of the Roman Republic and soon becomes the capital of the province of Cilicia.
• 41 BC — The legendary meeting between the Roman general Mark Antony and the Egyptian Queen Cleopatra takes place in the city.
• C. 5–10 AD — Saul is born in Tarsus; he would later become known as the Apostle Paul, a key figure in Christian history.
• 637 AD — Arab forces conquer the city, and it becomes part of the Arab Caliphate, serving as an important border fortification.
• 965 AD — Byzantine Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas recaptures Tarsus, returning it to Byzantine control.
• C. 1198–1375 — Tarsus (Tarson) becomes one of the most important capitals of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia.
• 1516 — The city becomes part of the Ottoman Empire under Sultan Selim I, marking the start of a new phase in its history.
• 1579 — Construction of the Kırkkaşık Bedesteni covered market, which remains an important commercial center and architectural monument today.
• 1923 — Following the foundation of the Republic of Turkey, Tarsus is permanently established as a modern Turkish city within the Mersin province.

Major Milestones in the Development of Tarsus

Tarsus, one of the oldest cities in the world, has passed through many eras, each contributing to its economic, cultural, and urban development. Below are the key milestones that shaped the appearance and significance of this historical center.

• Roman Capital and Center of Knowledge (1st century BC – 4th century AD): In 67 BC, Tarsus became the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia. This status attracted investment in infrastructure: roads, aqueducts, and public buildings were constructed. The city transformed into a prosperous commercial and intellectual center, whose philosophical schools rivaled those of Athens and Alexandria.
• Birthplace of Apostle Paul (Early 1st century AD): Tarsus is the birthplace of one of the key figures of Christianity — the Apostle Paul (originally Saul). This fact defined the city's cultural and religious significance for centuries, making it an important pilgrimage center.
• Arab Border Outpost (7th–10th centuries): After the conquest by Arab forces in the 7th century, Tarsus was converted into a powerful border fortress on the frontier with the Byzantine Empire. This period shifted the focus from trade to military needs, fundamentally changing the urban structure and the city's role.
• One of the Capitals of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia (c. 1198–1375): During this period, Tarsus (Armenian: Tarson) was one of the most important capitals of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia. The city once again became a major trade hub connecting the East with Mediterranean ports.
• The Ottoman Period and Urban Planning (from the 16th century): With its incorporation into the Ottoman Empire in 1516, a new stage of stable development began. Iconic landmarks were built, such as the Grand Mosque (Ulu Cami) and the Kırkkaşık Bedesteni covered market in 1579, which remains an important commercial center today.
• Economic Boom of the 19th Century: Rising global demand for cotton in the mid-19th century led to an economic boom in the region. The construction of the railway connecting Adana to the port of Mersin via Tarsus in 1886 strengthened its position as a key agricultural and logistics center.
• Modernization in the Republic of Turkey (from 1923): Following the foundation of the Republic of Turkey, Tarsus was integrated into the new economic and administrative system. In the 1920s, the construction of Turkey's first hydroelectric power station on the Berdan River gave an impetus to further industrialization and modernization of the city.

The architecture of Tarsus is a living chronicle of its millennia-long history. The urban space is a multi-layered canvas where ancient ruins stand alongside Ottoman mosques, and traditional houses sit next to modern buildings. Every era has left its unique mark here, shaping the city's distinctive character.

The Roman Era: Monumentality and Engineering

During the Roman Empire, Tarsus served as the capital of the province of Cilicia, which defined its urban development. The Romans brought with them a culture of monumental construction and advanced engineering solutions.

• Architectural features: This period is characterized by arched structures, the use of concrete and stone, and a clear street layout. The surviving buildings demonstrate typical Roman classicism, focused on grandeur and functionality.
• Iconic landmarks:
  • Cleopatra’s Gate (Kleopatra Kapısı): The only surviving city gate, although significantly rebuilt during the Middle Ages. It was originally part of a massive defensive system and symbolized the city's status.
  • Ancient Road (Antik Yol): An excavated section of a basalt-paved road testifies to the high level of Roman urban planning.
  • Roman Baths and the Donuktaş Temple: The ruins of the baths and the mysterious Donuktaş temple complex, dating back to the 2nd century AD, show the scale of public and religious buildings of that time.

Byzantine and Armenian Periods: Religious Architecture

After the fall of the Roman Empire, Tarsus became an important religious center, which was reflected in its architecture. The styles of this era combined Late Roman traditions with new trends in Christian architecture.

• Architectural features: Primary focus was placed on building churches. In the architecture of this period, especially in structures from the time of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, one can find features remotely reminiscent of European Gothic, such as stone vaults and massive walls.
• Iconic landmarks:
  • St. Paul’s Church (Aziz Pavlus Kilisesi): Although the current building was erected much later, presumably in the 12th or even 19th century, it stands on the site of an ancient Christian shrine. It is a basilica with stone vaults and is a UNESCO World Heritage site.

The Ottoman Era: Islamic Architecture and Urban Life

Starting from the 16th century, Tarsus was actively developed with structures characteristic of Ottoman architecture, which combined Islamic, Seljuk, and Byzantine traditions. This period gave the city its most recognizable buildings.

• Architectural features: Domes, minarets, courtyards with fountains, covered galleries, and rich ornamental decoration became the hallmarks of the era.
• Iconic landmarks:
  • The Grand Mosque (Ulu Cami): Built in 1579, it is a prime example of classical Ottoman architecture with influences from Seljuk and Mamluk styles.
  • Kırkkaşık Bedesteni: A covered market built in the same year, 1579, representing a model of Ottoman commercial architecture.
  • Historical Houses of Tarsus: Numerous two-story houses from the 19th and 20th centuries have been preserved in the old quarters, featuring stone ground floors and characteristic wooden bay windows on the second floor, reflecting traditional Ottoman life.

Modern Development

From the 20th century to the present day, the architectural appearance of Tarsus has been supplemented by modern buildings. The early Republican period brought functionalism, while subsequent development introduced typical residential and commercial buildings in the Modernist style. The city is undergoing a gradual restoration of its historical heritage; however, new buildings mainly meet the utilitarian needs of the growing population without forming a unified stylistic ensemble comparable to historical eras.

Outstanding Personalities Associated with Tarsus

As a major cultural, intellectual, and political center for thousands of years, Tarsus has been the birthplace or workplace of many outstanding historical figures. Here are just a few of them:

• Apostle Paul (Saul of Tarsus)
  Role: Early Christian apostle and missionary (1st century AD).
  Significance: One of the most influential figures in the history of Christianity. He was born in Tarsus, forever inscribing the city into world religious history. His epistles form a significant part of the New Testament.
• Antipater of Tarsus
  Role: Ancient Greek Stoic philosopher (2nd century BC).
  Significance: Head of the Stoic school in Athens and a recognized master of dialectics. His works on ethics and logic contributed to the development of Stoicism, strengthening Tarsus's reputation as one of the leading intellectual centers of antiquity.
• Athenodorus Cananites
  Role: Stoic philosopher, historian, and imperial advisor (1st century BC).
  Significance: He was the teacher and advisor to the first Roman Emperor, Augustus. Returning to his native Tarsus in his old age, he implemented reforms in the city's administration, contributing to its prosperity.
• Theodore of Tarsus
  Role: Archbishop of Canterbury (7th century AD).
  Significance: A native of Tarsus, he became one of the most influential archbishops in English history. Theodore reformed the English church, founded schools, and promoted the spread of education, exerting a huge influence on the development of medieval England.
• Abdullah al-Ma'mun
  Role: The seventh Caliph of the Abbasid dynasty (9th century AD).
  Significance: A patron of sciences and arts and founder of the "House of Wisdom" in Baghdad. Tarsus was an important military base for him during campaigns against Byzantium. Al-Ma'mun passed away near the city and was buried in Tarsus in 833 AD.
• Ümit Yaşar Oğuzcan
  Role: Turkish poet (1926–1984).
  Significance: A native of Tarsus, he became one of the most prolific and popular poets of his time in Turkey. His lyrical and melancholic poems about love, separation, and loneliness gained wide recognition and remain favorites among readers today.
• Emine Ülker Tarhan
  Role: Turkish jurist and politician (born 1963).
  Significance: Born in Tarsus, she served as a judge and later became a prominent politician and member of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. She is an example of a contemporary distinguished figure associated with the city.