Samarkand history

Samarkand is one of the oldest cities in the world, with a history spanning more than 2,750 years. A contemporary of Rome and Athens, this city has been more than just a point on a map for centuries; it has been a true centre of civilization, science, and trade. Its past is a kaleidoscope of great empires, cultural ascents, and fateful events.

Foundation and First Mentions

According to archaeological data, the city was founded in the 8th century BC. In antiquity, it was known as Marakanda—the capital of the prosperous state of Sogdiana. The first written mentions of Marakanda were left by historians accompanying Alexander the Great during his campaign in 329 BC. Even then, it was a large, well-developed, and fortified city.

Key Factors of Development

Samarkand owes its rise to several important factors:

• Geographical Location: The city is situated in the fertile valley of the Zarafshan River, creating favourable conditions for agriculture and life.
• Trade: Samarkand was a key point on the Great Silk Road, connecting China and Europe. This made it one of the main commercial hubs of Central Asia.
• Political Role: The city repeatedly became the capital of powerful states. It was the centre of Sogdiana, and in the 14th century, Amir Timur (Tamerlane) made Samarkand the capital of his vast empire, marking the period of its greatest flourishing.

Early Cultural and Economic Features

Since ancient times, Samarkand has been a melting pot of cultures, where Persian, Turkic, and Hellenistic traditions intertwined. The city was famous for its artisans, and from the 8th century, paper production was established here, eventually replacing papyrus and parchment in the East. As a centre of science in the medieval East, Samarkand attracted scholars, architects, and poets, contributing to its transformation into the "Pearl of the East".

Chronology of Samarkand's History

The chronicle of Samarkand is a kaleidoscope of eras, in which every period has left its unique mark on the architecture, culture, and spirit of this great city.

• 8th Century BC — Foundation of the city, known in antiquity as Marakanda, the capital of the ancient state of Sogdiana.
• 329 BC — The city is conquered by the troops of Alexander the Great, marking the beginning of Hellenistic influence in the region.
• 712 AD — Arab conquest led by Qutayba ibn Muslim and the inclusion of Samarkand into the Arab Caliphate, leading to the spread of Islam.
• 9th–10th Centuries — Samarkand becomes one of the most important centres of the Samanid state, experiencing a cultural and scientific renaissance.
• 1220 — Conquest and destruction of the city by the troops of Genghis Khan, becoming one of the most tragic events in its history.
• 1370 — Amir Timur (Tamerlane) proclaims Samarkand the capital of his vast empire, beginning an era of grandiose construction.
• First half of the 15th Century — During the reign of Timur's grandson, Ulugh Beg, Samarkand transforms into one of the leading scientific centres of the medieval world.
• 1868 — The city is occupied by the troops of the Russian Empire and becomes the centre of the Samarkand Region.
• 1925–1930 — Samarkand becomes the first capital of the Uzbek SSR, playing a vital administrative and political role.
• 2001 — The historic centre of the city, under the title "Samarkand – Crossroad of Cultures", is inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List.

Key Milestones in the Development of Samarkand

The history of Samarkand is not merely a chronology of events, but a succession of eras, each of which radically changed its appearance and significance. Below are the main stages that defined the city's destiny.

• Centre of the Great Silk Road (Antiquity and Early Middle Ages). Its location in a fertile valley and at the crossroads of trade routes made Samarkand (ancient Marakanda) an economic and cultural magnet. Trade in silk, spices, and precious metals shaped it as a wealthy and multinational city.
• Arab Conquest and the Spread of Islam (8th Century). This period brought not only a change in religion but also a technological revolution: Samarkand mastered paper production. This skill made the city an intellectual hub for centuries, from where knowledge and literature spread throughout the Islamic world.
• Era of Timur and the Timurids (14th–15th Centuries). Becoming the capital of the vast empire of Amir Timur (Tamerlane), Samarkand experienced its greatest flourishing. Grandiose construction (the Registan ensemble, Bibi-Khanym Mosque, Gur-Emir Mausoleum) turned it into an architectural pearl. Under Timur's grandson, Ulugh Beg, the city became one of the world's main scientific centres, especially in the field of astronomy.
• Incorporation into the Russian Empire (1868). This stage marked a new era in urban planning. A railway was laid, connecting the city to the Caspian Sea, which boosted economic development. Adjacent to the old city, a new one arose with European planning and architecture, creating a unique contrast between two cultures.
• Capital of the Uzbek SSR (1925–1930). For a short but important period, Samarkand received capital status in the newly formed republic. This led to the construction of administrative buildings, infrastructure development, and strengthened its role as a key political and cultural centre of Soviet Uzbekistan.
• Inclusion in the UNESCO World Heritage List (2001). The international recognition of Samarkand's historic centre as "Samarkand – Crossroad of Cultures" highlighted its global significance. This status promotes the preservation of its unique heritage and attracts tourists from all over the world.

The architecture of Samarkand is a grandiose poem in stone, reflecting the city's centuries-old history and cultural richness. As the "Crossroad of Cultures" on the Great Silk Road, it absorbed the best traditions of Persian, Islamic, and Central Asian architecture. The calling card of Samarkand became the unique style of the Timurid era, which captures the imagination with its scale, harmony of forms, and luxurious decoration.

The Golden Age of Samarkand architecture fell in the 14th–15th centuries, when the city was the capital of the vast empire of Amir Timur (Tamerlane). The great commander sought to turn Samarkand into the most beautiful city in the world, for which the best architects, builders, and masters from all conquered lands were summoned here. It was during this period that the key principles of the Timurid style were established: monumentality, majestic entrance portals (pishtaqs), high drums crowned with ribbed turquoise domes, and an incredible wealth of ornamentation.

Major architectural masterpieces, such as the Registan Square ensemble, the Bibi-Khanym congregational mosque, and the Gur-Emir mausoleum, are the brightest examples of this style. Their walls are adorned with intricate patterns of glazed brick, carved mosaic, and majolica, dominated by sky-blue, deep blue, and turquoise tones. These buildings were intended not only to serve functional purposes but also to demonstrate the power and grandeur of the Timurid Empire.

In addition to medieval monuments, Samarkand's architectural appearance is complemented by structures from later periods. In the 19th century, after the city became part of the Russian Empire, a new district grew next to the old city with European planning, straight streets, and buildings in Art Nouveau and Neoclassical styles. This contrast between the ancient eastern city with its narrow streets and monumental madrasahs and the more modern district gives Samarkand a special charm.

While walking through Samarkand, it is worth paying attention to key decorative elements that create its unique look:

• Kashin Tile Mosaic: Complex geometric and floral ornaments created from thousands of small pieces of coloured ceramics.
• Ganch Carving: Intricate carving on alabaster that decorates the interiors of many historical buildings, creating a refined play of light and shadow.
• Monumental Calligraphy: Artfully woven Arabic inscriptions in the decor, often containing quotes from sacred texts or the names of rulers.
• Majestic Domes: Bright blue domes, symbolizing the firmament, have become a true symbol of Oriental architecture and an integral part of the Samarkand skyline.

Samarkand, one of the oldest cities in the world and the pearl of Uzbekistan, has been a centre of science, culture, and politics for centuries. The names of great rulers, scholars, and artists are linked to its history, and their legacy still defines the appearance and spirit of the city.

Amir Timur (Tamerlane)

The great conqueror and founder of the powerful Timurid Empire, who lived in the 14th century. It was he who made Samarkand the capital of his vast state, transforming it into one of the most prosperous and beautiful cities in the world. By his order, many architectural masterpieces were erected, including elements of the Shah-i-Zinda complex and the Bibi-Khanym Mosque. His tomb, the majestic Gur-Emir Mausoleum, is one of the city's main attractions.

Mirzo Ulugh Beg

Timur's grandson, who ruled in the 15th century and became famous not so much for military campaigns as for his scientific achievements. He was an outstanding astronomer and mathematician who turned Samarkand into a major scientific centre of the Middle Ages. His main legacy was the famous observatory, where the "Zij-i Gurgani"—the most accurate star catalogue of its time—was created. Also, on his initiative, a madrasah was built on Registan Square.

Imam al-Bukhari

One of the most revered Islamic theologians of the 9th century, author of the hadith collection "Sahih al-Bukhari". Although he was born in Bukhara, his life and work were closely connected with the region, and he passed away in a village near Samarkand. His memorial complex, located not far from the city, is one of the most important pilgrimage centres for Muslims from all over the world.

Abu Mansur al-Maturidi

A prominent Islamic thinker and theologian of the 10th century, born in the vicinity of Samarkand. He is the founder of Maturidism—one of the main schools of Sunni Kalam (rationalistic theology). His teachings had a huge influence on the development of Islamic thought in Central Asia and beyond.

Islam Karimov

The first President of the Republic of Uzbekistan, who led the country from 1991 to 2016. He was born in Samarkand on January 30, 1938. His activities laid the foundations of modern independent Uzbekistan. He is buried in Samarkand on the territory of the Khazret-Khizr Mosque, where a mausoleum was erected.