History of Herat

Herat is one of the oldest and most significant cities in Afghanistan, with a history spanning over 2,500 years. Located in the fertile valley of the Hari River, it has served for centuries as a pivotal hub at the crossroads of civilizations, cultures, and trade routes.

Foundation and First Mentions

The first settlements on the site of modern Herat existed as early as the 6th–4th centuries BC, during the time of the Persian Achaemenid Empire, when the city was known as Aria or Artacoana. A turning point in its early history occurred in 330 BC, when Alexander the Great captured the citadel and founded a Hellenistic settlement here named Alexandria Ariana. This event cemented the city's strategic importance for many centuries to come.

Key Factors of Development

Herat owes its growth and prosperity to several key factors:

• Geographical Location: The city is situated in a fertile oasis, which facilitated the development of agriculture and provided resources for a growing population.
• Trade: Herat was one of the most vital nodes of the Great Silk Road. Caravan routes connecting Persia, India, China, and Europe passed through here, making it a major centre of commerce.
• Political Influence: In various eras, Herat served as the capital of powerful states. It reached its zenith in the 15th century under the Timurid dynasty, when it became the capital of their vast empire and the heart of the so-called "Timurid Renaissance".

Early Cultural and Economic Features

Even in the early Middle Ages, Herat was renowned as a prosperous city. Arab geographers described it as a place with abundant water reserves and developed infrastructure. The economy was based on the trade of silk, carpets, and agricultural produce, as well as highly developed crafts. In the 15th century, under the rule of the Timurid Sultan Shah Rukh, Herat transformed into one of the premier centres of science, poetry, and art in the entire Middle East. Outstanding poets such as Jami and Alisher Navoi created their works here, and the Herat school of miniature painting, led by the artist Behzad, gained worldwide fame.

Key Dates in the History of Herat

• c. 550 BC — The city, known as Aria or Artacoana, becomes part of the Persian Achaemenid Empire.
• 330 BC — Conquest by Alexander the Great, who founds the city of Alexandria Ariana on this site and constructs a citadel.
• 652 AD — The city is conquered by Arabs, marking the beginning of the spread of Islam in the region.
• 1175 — Herat becomes one of the capitals of the powerful Ghurid dynasty.
• 1221–1222 — The city undergoes complete destruction by the forces of Genghis Khan, leading to a massive loss of life.
• 1381 — Conquest by Tamerlane (Timur), who begins the process of restoring the city.
• 1405–1507 — The "Golden Age" of Herat as the capital of the Timurid Empire; the city becomes one of the main centres of science, art, and culture in the East.
• 1510 — The city passes under the control of the Safavid dynasty following its conquest by Shah Ismail I.
• 1747 — Herat becomes part of the Durrani Empire founded by Ahmad Shah Durrani, cementing its significance in Afghan statehood.
• 1837–1838 — The famous siege of Herat by the Persian army takes place, which the Afghans manage to repel with the support of British advisors.
• 1857 — Under the terms of the Treaty of Paris, Persia officially renounces its claims to Herat.

Key Stages of Herat's Development

The history of Herat is a kaleidoscope of eras, each leaving its mark on the city's economic, cultural, and architectural landscape. From a thriving centre on the Great Silk Road to the capital of a mighty empire, the city has repeatedly changed its status but has always remained one of the most important hubs in the region.

• Hub on the Great Silk Road. For centuries, Herat was a key trading junction connecting Persia, India, China, and Europe. Caravan routes passed through the city, contributing to economic prosperity and making it a multicultural centre where different peoples met.
• Recovery after the Mongol Invasion (13th Century). Following the city's destruction by Genghis Khan's troops in 1221, Herat began to gradually recover. During this period, bridges, canals, and city fortifications were repaired, laying the foundation for future revival. Economic growth was also facilitated by the weakening of trade competitors—Merv and Balkh, which had been destroyed by the Mongols.
• "Golden Age" under the Timurids (15th Century). This period marked the pinnacle of Herat's development when it served as the capital of the vast Timurid Empire. Under the patronage of rulers such as Shah Rukh and his wife Gawhar Shad, the city turned into a brilliant centre of science, poetry, and art. Grand architectural ensembles were built, including the Musalla complex, and the Herat school of book illumination achieved global renown.
• Centre of Afghan Statehood (18th Century). In 1747, Herat became part of the Durrani Empire founded by Ahmad Shah Durrani. This moment solidified its importance as a key city in the formation of the Afghan state.
• Strategic Outpost in the 19th Century. During the era of the "Great Game"—the geopolitical rivalry between the British and Russian Empires—Herat's strategic significance increased manifold. The city survived several sieges, which led to the strengthening of its defensive structures but also caused damage to many historical buildings.
• Modernization in the 20th Century. In the 20th century, modernization processes began in Herat, as in all of Afghanistan. Modern buildings, schools, and hospitals were constructed, roads were paved, and a city museum was founded, changing its infrastructural appearance.

The architectural appearance of Herat is a multi-layered chronicle in which every era has left its unique mark. The city, having survived the rise and fall of great empires, has preserved unique monuments reflecting a shift in styles from Hellenistic times to the Islamic Renaissance.

Early Eras and Islamic Establishment

Herat's urban planning history begins in ancient times. The foundation of the city was the Citadel (Qala Ikhtyaruddin), established as early as 330 BC by Alexander the Great. Although it has been rebuilt many times, its massive walls and towers still define the panorama of the old city. A landmark event for Islamic architecture was the construction of the Friday Mosque (Juma Masjid) in 1200 by order of a Sultan from the Ghurid dynasty. Initially built on the site of a Zoroastrian temple, it laid the groundwork for the city's future main religious centre.

Timurid Renaissance — The "Golden Age" of Architecture

Herat's architecture reached its highest peak in the 15th century when the city became the capital of the powerful Timurid Empire. This period, known as the "Timurid Renaissance", gifted the world masterpieces that defined the architectural canon for the entire region. The style of this era is characterized by the grandeur of design, symmetry, immense portals and domes, as well as exquisite cladding of carved mosaic and glazed tiles, predominantly in blue and turquoise hues.

Key monuments of this period include:

• The Friday Mosque: Following an earthquake, it was extensively restored and redecorated in the late 15th century under the patronage of the poet Alisher Navoi. It was then that it acquired its famous appearance with magnificent ceramic ornamentation.
• The Citadel: It was completely rebuilt and fortified under the ruler Shah Rukh, son of Timur, transforming into a royal residence adorned with glazed brick.
• The Musalla Complex: A grandiose ensemble created by order of Queen Gawhar Shad, which included a madrasa, a mosque, and her mausoleum. Designed by the famous architect Qavam al-Din Shirazi, it was considered an unsurpassed masterpiece of its time. Unfortunately, most of the complex was destroyed in 1885, and only the mausoleum and several majestic minarets, which remain symbols of Herat, have survived to this day.

Urban Development

In the 15th century, Herat was a well-planned fortress city. It was surrounded by powerful walls with towers and a moat. The main streets intersected in the centre under the dome of the Charsu trading arcade, and covered bazaars radiated from them, bustling with craft and trade activity. Beyond the city walls lay gardens and suburban ensembles, such as the Musalla, forming a harmonious and prosperous urban space.

Distinguished Personalities in Herat's History

Throughout the centuries, Herat has been home and a centre of attraction for many outstanding rulers, thinkers, poets, and artists whose legacy has had a tremendous influence on the culture of the entire region.

Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad (12th–13th Centuries)

A Sultan of the Ghurid dynasty. During his reign, Herat became one of the capitals of the mighty Ghurid Empire. It was by his order in 1200 that the construction of the grandiose Friday Mosque began, which remains the city's main religious structure today.

Shah Rukh (1377–1447)

A ruler from the Timurid dynasty and the youngest son of Tamerlane. He moved the capital of his vast empire to Herat, initiating its "Golden Age". Shah Rukh was known as a patron of the sciences and arts; under his court, architecture, calligraphy, and literature flourished.

Gawhar Shad (Late 14th Century – 1457)

The wife of Shah Rukh and one of the most influential women in the region's history. She was a renowned patron of the arts and possessed refined artistic taste. On her initiative, the famous Musalla architectural ensemble was built, including a mosque and madrasa, of which majestic minarets and her mausoleum have survived to our days.

Abdurrahman Jami (1414–1492)

An outstanding Persian poet, Sufi philosopher, and music theorist. Having lived almost his entire life in Herat, he became one of the greatest masters of words of his time. His work concluded the classical period of Persian poetry, and his home was a centre of attraction for the city's intellectual elite.

Alisher Navoi (1441–1501)

A great poet, thinker, and statesman, and the founder of Turkic literature. As a vizier at the court of Sultan Husayn Bayqara, he invested immense funds into the beautification of Herat, the construction of hospitals, bridges, and caravanserais. Navoi was a close friend of Jami and a patron to many artists, including Behzad.

Sultan Husayn Bayqara (1438–1506)

The last significant ruler of Herat from the Timurid dynasty. His reign was marked by the city's highest cultural flowering. He gathered a galaxy of the greatest poets, scholars, and artists at his court, thanks to which Herat firmly established its status as the "Florence of the East".

Kamal ud-Din Behzad (c. 1450 – c. 1535)

A genius miniature painter who headed the royal kitabkhana (book workshop) in Herat. He revolutionized Persian painting by introducing dynamism, realism, and psychological depth. His work defined the development of the Herat school of miniature painting and influenced the art of the entire Islamic world.