Dunhuang history

Foundation and First Mentions

The history of Dunhuang as an official administrative centre begins in 111 BC. The city was founded by Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, who established a commandery here after driving out the nomadic Xiongnu tribes from the Hexi Corridor. The name of the city, which can be translated as "Shining" or "Grand and Prosperous", symbolised the power of the empire on its western frontiers.

Key Factors of Formation

The rapid development of Dunhuang was predetermined by its unique location and strategic importance:

• Geography: The city emerged in an oasis on the edge of the harsh Taklamakan Desert. It was a critical point: the last place where travellers could replenish supplies of water and food before the dangerous journey west, and the first safe haven upon returning to China.
• Trade: It was in Dunhuang that the Great Silk Road branched into northern and southern routes bypassing the desert. The entire flow of goods between China and Central Asia passed through this "junction" city.
• Political Power: To protect trade and borders, the Han Dynasty extended the Great Wall to Dunhuang, building the famous outposts of Yumenguan (Jade Gate) and Yangguan. This ensured military presence and regional security.

Early Cultural and Economic Features

Since its founding, Dunhuang became a "melting pot" of cultures. The city's economy flourished through servicing caravans, customs duties, and developed irrigation farming in the oasis.

Culturally, the city became the main gateway through which foreign influences entered China, most notably Buddhism. Even in the early centuries, a unique community formed here where Chinese officials, Sogdian merchants, and Buddhist monks coexisted, which subsequently led to the creation of the priceless heritage of the Mogao Caves.

Chronology of Key Events

• 111 BC — Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty officially establishes Dunhuang Commandery as a military outpost to protect trade routes from nomads.
• 366 — Monk Le Zun begins construction of the first cave in the Mogao complex, starting a millennial tradition of creating Buddhist temples in the cliffs.
• 400 — The city becomes the capital of the Western Liang kingdom during the turbulent period of the Sixteen Kingdoms.
• 609 — Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty visits the region and holds a massive trade fair, reinforcing the city's status as an international hub.
• 618–907 — During the Tang Dynasty, Dunhuang reaches the peak of its economic and cultural prosperity as a major node of the Great Silk Road.
• 781 — The Tibetan Empire captures the city, ruling it and preserving Buddhist traditions for nearly seven decades.
• 848 — Local general Zhang Yichao liberates Dunhuang from the Tibetans and establishes the semi-autonomous "Return to Allegiance Army" (Guiyi) regime.
• 1036 — The Tangut state of Western Xia conquers the oasis, introducing its unique cultural elements to the art of the Mogao Caves.
• 1227 — Dunhuang comes under the control of the Mongol Empire after the defeat of Western Xia by the troops of Genghis Khan.
• 1524 — The Ming Dynasty closes the Jiayuguan Pass and officially abandons territories to the west of it, leading to the city's decline and desolation.
• 1723 — The Qing Empire restores administrative control in the region and begins a new wave of settling the oasis with farmers.
• 1900 — Taoist monk Wang Yuanlu accidentally discovers the walled-up "Library Cave" (Cave 17) containing tens of thousands of ancient manuscripts.
• 1907 — British archaeologist Aurel Stein becomes the first Western researcher to arrive in the city and acquires a significant part of the archive.
• 1944 — The National Dunhuang Art Research Institute is established to protect and study the cave complex.
• 1987 — The Mogao Caves are included in the UNESCO World Heritage List as a unique monument of human civilisation.

Key Milestones of Development and Transformation

The history of Dunhuang is not just a change of dynasties, but a series of fundamental changes in the function and appearance of the city. Here are the main stages that defined its modern look and status:

• Transformation into the Empire's Military Shield (2nd Century BC)
  The founding of the city was accompanied by a massive urban planning project: the extension of the Great Wall and the erection of a system of beacon towers.
  Significance: This turned an undeveloped oasis into the region's most powerful fortress, defining its layout as a militarised garrison controlling the Hexi Corridor.
• Rise as a Trade Hub (1st–8th Centuries)
  Thanks to the division of the Silk Road into northern and southern branches, Dunhuang became a "land port". Caravanserais, warehouses, and markets were built here.
  Significance: An economic boom allowed the city to accumulate colossal funds, which were subsequently directed towards supporting the arts and building temples.
• Spiritual Transformation and the Rise of Mogao (4th–14th Centuries)
  For a millennium, the city formed around the cave complex. Entire guilds of artists, sutra scribes, and sculptors emerged.
  Significance: Cultural transformation made Dunhuang the spiritual capital of western China, attracting pilgrims and the intellectual elite, which changed the demographic composition of the population.
• Urban Decline of the Ming Era (16th–17th Centuries)
  After China closed itself off from the outside world and the border was moved east (to Jiayuguan Pass), Dunhuang was effectively abandoned.
  Significance: The city lost its strategic and commercial importance, the population declined sharply, and irrigation systems fell into disrepair, setting the region's development back by centuries.
• Agrarian Recolonisation (18th–19th Centuries)
  The Qing Empire began a programme of resettling farmers to develop the virgin lands of the oasis. City walls and canals were restored.
  Significance: Dunhuang was reborn as an agricultural centre providing food for garrisons, laying the foundation for the area's modern agricultural specialisation (cotton and fruit production).
• Scientific Discovery and Museification (20th Century)
  The discovery of the "Library Cave" and the creation of the Dunhuang Research Institute turned the city into a global centre for Oriental studies.
  Significance: The formation of infrastructure for heritage preservation began, saving monuments from destruction and attracting international attention.
• Modern Tourism Urbanisation (21st Century)
  Construction of a modern airport, railway station, and cultural centres (such as the theatre for the "See Dunhuang Again" show).
  Significance: A complete reorientation of the city's economy towards tourism. The urban environment now develops taking into account the needs of millions of travellers, maintaining a balance between comfort and the protection of the fragile desert ecosystem.

Urban Evolution: From Outpost to Open-Air Museum

The architectural appearance of Dunhuang is unique in that one will hardly find the familiar succession of European styles (like Gothic or Baroque) here. The city's history is frozen in clay and wood, reflecting the evolution of Chinese architecture in harsh desert conditions. The development of the city can be divided into distinct stages where functionality dictated form.

Eras and Architectural Styles

• Han Era (2nd Century BC — 3rd Century AD) — Militarism and Fortification
  During this period, Dunhuang was primarily a military fortress.
  • Style: Utilitarian defensive architecture.
  • Materials: Rammed earth (loess), clay, reeds, wood.
  • Characteristic features: Massive walls, beacon towers (fenghuotai), square layout of garrisons.
• Era of Northern and Southern Dynasties — Tang Dynasty (4th–10th Centuries) — Buddhist Rock Architecture
  The Golden Age of Dunhuang, when religious architecture dominated over civil architecture.
  • Style: Cave temple construction and wooden architecture of the Tang era.
  • Characteristic features: A combination of the Indian chaitya structure (cave temple) with Chinese wooden facades and pavilions. Use of the "dougong" bracket system to support massive roofs.
• Qing Dynasty (17th–20th Centuries) — Traditional Chinese Style
  After centuries of desolation, the city was rebuilt, but this time as an agrarian and administrative centre.
  • Style: Late Imperial Chinese classics.
  • Characteristic features: Single-storey buildings with internal courtyards (siheyuan), curved roof slopes, use of grey brick and wooden carving.
• Modernity (21st Century) — Neo-Traditionalism and "Dunhuang Style"
  Urban planning is oriented towards tourism, striving to recreate the atmosphere of antiquity.
  • Style: Modernism with stylised elements from the Han and Tang eras.
  • Characteristic features: Sand-coloured buildings imitating rammed earth walls, monumental entrance gates, stylised roofs on public buildings (stations, museums).

Iconic Structures That Shaped the Region's Look

The architectural landscape of Dunhuang is defined by several key objects, each being a symbol of its era:

• Mogao Caves and the "Nine-Storey Pavilion" (Cave 96)
  The main architectural landmark. The wooden facade attached to the cliff has been rebuilt many times but has preserved the spirit of Tang grandeur. The bright red eaves against the grey cliff have become the visual symbol of the city.
• Ruins of Yumenguan (Jade Gate)
  A classic example of Han fortification. The preserved rammed earth block demonstrates construction technologies using compacted soil that allowed the walls to stand for over 2,000 years in the desert.
• Pavilions at the Crescent Lake (Mingshashan)
  A complex of buildings in traditional style, restored in modern history. It demonstrates the harmony of Chinese architecture with the natural landscape: elegant pagodas and gazebos surrounded by sand dunes.
• Shazhou Night Market
  The centre of modern social life. An example of successful modern urbanism stylised as antique, where small architectural forms (arches, canopies) create the atmosphere of an ancient caravanserai.

Distinguished Personalities of Dunhuang

The history of this oasis is inextricably linked with the names of emperors, monks, generals, and scholars whose destinies were intertwined with the fate of the Great Silk Road.

• Zhang Qian (2nd Century BC)
  Imperial envoy and diplomat of the Han Dynasty.
  His legendary journeys to the "Western Regions" mapped out the route of the Great Silk Road. It was thanks to his reports that the imperial court realised the strategic importance of the region, which led to the official founding of Dunhuang.
• Emperor Wu (156–87 BC)
  Ruler of the Han Dynasty.
  The initiator of China's expansion to the west. In 111 BC, he established the administrative district of Dunhuang and ordered the extension of the Great Wall to this region, creating a system of defensive outposts at Yumenguan and Yangguan.
• Monk Le Zun (4th Century)
  Wandering Buddhist monk.
  The spiritual founder of the Mogao cave complex. According to legend, in 366 he saw a golden radiance of a thousand Buddhas over Mount Mingshashan and carved the first cave for meditation, beginning a millennial tradition of temple construction.
• Zhang Yichao (9th Century)
  General and military governor.
  A national hero of local significance. In 848, he led a rebellion of local residents, expelled the Tibetan troops occupying the region, and returned Dunhuang to the formal jurisdiction of the Tang Dynasty, ensuring a period of stability and prosperity.
• Wang Yuanlu (c. 1849–1931)
  Taoist monk.
  Caretaker of the Mogao Caves at the turn of the 19th–20th centuries. In 1900, while clearing sand, he accidentally discovered the walled-up "Library Cave" (Cave 17), containing about 50,000 ancient manuscripts and scrolls, which became a global sensation.
• Aurel Stein (1862–1943)
  British archaeologist and explorer.
  The first Western scholar to appreciate the significance of the Mogao cave archive. His expedition in 1907 and acquisition of part of the manuscripts opened "Dunhuangology" to the world as a science, although his actions are often viewed controversially in China.
• Chang Shuhong (1904–1994)
  Artist, first director of the Dunhuang Research Institute.
  Known as the "Guardian Angel of Dunhuang". In the 1940s, he left a comfortable life and career, moving to the desert to organise the protection of crumbling frescoes and statues, effectively saving the monument from total disappearance.
• Fan Jinshi (born 1938)
  Archaeologist, honorary director of the Dunhuang Academy.
  Received the unofficial title "Daughter of Dunhuang". She dedicated over 50 years of her life to studying the caves and initiated the massive "Digital Dunhuang" project, allowing art to be preserved in a virtual format for future generations.