Turpan history

The history of Turpan is a fascinating narrative of survival and prosperity in one of the harshest corners of the planet. The city emerged as a vital oasis in the Turpan Depression, the second-lowest point on Earth, and for millennia played a key role in the dialogue of civilisations.

Founding and First Mentions

Modern Turpan inherited the history of ancient city-states, the ruins of which lie nearby. The first settlements in this region, dating back to the 2nd century BC, were associated with a kingdom known as Gushi (or Jushi). The capital of this kingdom was the city of Jiaohe, uniquely situated on a plateau between two rivers. These lands were strategically important, and the Han Empire and the nomadic Xiongnu tribes fought for control over them, which is reflected in the early historical chronicles of China.

Key Factors of Formation

The prosperity of Turpan was determined by a combination of unique factors:

• Geographical Location: Located in the heart of the desert, the oasis served as an indispensable point for rest and resupply for caravans travelling along the northern branch of the Great Silk Road.
• Engineering Ingenuity: Life in the extremely hot and dry climate was made possible thanks to a brilliant irrigation system — the karez. These underground channels collected meltwater from the Tian Shan mountains and delivered it to the oasis, protecting it from evaporation.
• Political Significance: Control over Turpan meant control over a major trade route, making it an object of interest for many dynasties and peoples over the centuries.

Early Cultural and Economic Features

Since ancient times, Turpan was not just a trade hub, but a true "melting pot" of cultures. Representatives of different peoples and beliefs met and coexisted peacefully here: Buddhists, Manichaeans, Nestorians, and Muslims. This is evidenced by the unique frescoes in the nearby Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves. The city's economy was built on the trade of silk, spices, and other goods, as well as agriculture — thanks to the karez system, the cultivation of famous grapes, cotton, and melons flourished here.

Key Milestones in the History of Turpan

The history of the Turpan Oasis is a kaleidoscope of shifting dynasties, cultures, and religions. The cities that emerged here played a crucial role on the Great Silk Road.

• 2nd Century BC — Founding of the Jiaohe settlement, the capital of the Cheshi (Jushi) Kingdom, which became one of the first state formations in the region.
• 1st Century BC — Founding of Gaochang as a military and agricultural settlement of the Han Dynasty to strengthen control over the Silk Road.
• 440–640 AD — Period of the independent Kingdom of Gaochang (Qocho), ruled by several Chinese dynasties; the city becomes a major centre of Buddhism.
• 640 AD — Conquest of Gaochang by the Chinese Tang Dynasty, strengthening the empire's influence in Central Asia and securing trade routes.
• Mid-9th Century — After the collapse of the Uyghur Khaganate, Uyghurs migrate to the Turpan Depression and establish the Uyghur Idiqut (or Kingdom of Qocho) with its capital in Gaochang.
• 9th–13th Centuries — Flourishing of the Uyghur Idiqut; Turpan becomes a centre of Manichaeism and Buddhism, and a unique Uyghur culture and script develop here.
• 1209 — The ruler of the Idiqut voluntarily becomes a vassal of Genghis Khan, allowing Turpan to avoid destruction and integrate into the Mongol Empire.
• Late 13th Century — The cities of Jiaohe and Gaochang are destroyed during wars between the descendants of Genghis Khan, leading to the decline of these ancient centres.
• 15th Century — The name "Turpan" is definitively attached to the region, which becomes an important centre of Moghulistan — the state of Chaghatai's descendants.
• 1759 — The Turpan Oasis becomes part of the Qing Empire after the defeat of the Dzungar Khanate, marking the beginning of a new stage in the region's history.
• Late 18th Century — Construction of the Emin Minaret in honour of a local ruler, symbolising Islamic architecture and loyalty to the Qing Dynasty.

Key Stages of Turpan's Development

Turpan's development over the centuries was defined by its unique location on the Great Silk Road and the ability of its inhabitants to adapt to harsh desert conditions. The city underwent many transformations, becoming an important economic, cultural, and agricultural centre.

• Creation of the Karez Irrigation System (over 2000 years ago): This ancient system of underground channels, delivering water from the Tian Shan mountains, became the foundation of life and prosperity for the oasis. The karez allowed agriculture to develop in one of the most arid places in the world and remains an outstanding monument of engineering thought that is still in use today. The total length of the channels spans thousands of kilometres.
• Hub on the Great Silk Road (2nd c. BC – 14th c. AD): The ancient predecessor cities of Turpan, Gaochang and Jiaohe, were key trading and military outposts on the northern branch of the route. This ensured economic prosperity and turned the region into a melting pot of cultures, religions, and ideas, specifically making it a major centre for the spread of Buddhism.
• Flourishing of the Uyghur Idiqut (9th–13th Centuries): After the migration of Uyghurs to the Turpan Depression, the city of Gaochang became the capital of their state. This period was marked by a cultural rise: Uyghur script developed, Buddhism and Manichaeism flourished, and outstanding works of art were created, as evidenced by the frescoes of the cave temples.
• Integration into the Qing Empire (1759): After prolonged wars, the region became part of the Qing Empire. This step stabilised the political situation and marked the beginning of a new phase of urban planning. A new city was founded next to the old one, and the Emin Minaret — an iconic architectural monument — was erected in honour of a local ruler loyal to the Qing.
• Transformation into the "Grape Capital" of China: Thanks to the unique climate and the karez system, Turpan became a centre for viticulture. Grape growing and raisin production, which accounts for a significant portion of China's total volume, became the backbone of the local economy alongside cotton farming.
• Development of Tourism (20th–21st Centuries): Archaeological discoveries and the preservation of unique historical monuments, such as the ruins of Gaochang and Jiaohe, the Flaming Mountains, and the Bezeklik Cave Temples, have turned Turpan into a major tourist hub. This created a new powerful impulse for the city's economic development.
• Integration into the Modern Transport Network: The construction of railways and highways connecting Turpan with Urumqi and other regions of China has significantly improved logistics and contributed to economic growth, trade, and the influx of tourists.

The architecture of Turpan is a unique reflection of its centuries-old history as an oasis on the Great Silk Road. There is no place for European styles like Gothic or Baroque here; instead, distinctive Central Asian building traditions, shaped by climate, religion, and cultural exchange, are vividly represented. Urban planning here has always been subordinate to the main task — survival in the harsh desert, which gave rise to ingenious engineering and architectural solutions.

Ancient Earthen Cities (2nd c. BC – 13th c. AD)

The appearance of ancient Turpan was defined by its predecessor cities — Jiaohe and Gaochang. Their ruins, preserved to this day, are striking examples of urban planning fully adapted to the environment. Both cities were built from rammed earth (adobe), which provided coolness in the heat and warmth in the cold.

• The Ancient City of Jiaohe is located on a high plateau between two rivers, creating a natural fortress. Its layout is unique: all buildings, streets, and squares were carved out of the plateau itself, rather than built upon it. It is the oldest and best-preserved earthen city in the world.
• The Ancient City of Gaochang, the former capital of the Uyghur Idiqut, had a more traditional structure with a clear division into an outer city, an inner city, and a palace complex. Its massive walls and the ruins of Buddhist monasteries testify to its former grandeur.

Buddhist Cave Architecture (5th–14th Centuries)

With the spread of Buddhism in the region, a special type of monumental architecture emerged — cave monasteries. The most famous example is the Bezeklik Cave Temples ("Thousand Buddhas"). This is a complex of dozens of grottoes carved into the cliffs of the Flaming Mountains. Each grotto served as a prayer hall or cell for monks, and their walls and ceilings were completely covered with frescoes depicting scenes from the life of Buddha. These temples are a synthesis of architecture, sculpture, and painting.

Islamic Architecture and the Qing Era (from the 18th Century)

After the region became part of the Qing Empire and Islam spread, the architectural landscape was enriched with new forms. An iconic monument of this era is the Emin Minaret (Sugong Tower), built in 1778. This 44-metre structure made of yellow brick represents an outstanding example of Uyghur Islamic architecture. Its conical shape and complex brickwork, forming more than 10 different geometric patterns, have no analogues in China. The minaret symbolised the loyalty of local rulers to the Qing Dynasty.

Traditional and Modern Development

Residential architecture in Turpan has followed climate-dictated principles for centuries. Traditional Uyghur houses are one- or two-storey adobe structures with flat roofs and a mandatory inner courtyard, creating shade and privacy. An important element is the "ayvan" — a covered terrace where the family spends time during the heat. Modern development in Turpan combines standard urban planning with elements of traditional decor, preserving cultural identity within a new architectural context.

Turpan, having been an important centre on the Great Silk Road for centuries, is linked to the names of many prominent rulers, thinkers, and figures whose influence extended far beyond the oasis.

Barchuq Art Tegin (Reign: Early 13th Century)

• Role: Idiqut (ruler) of the Uyghur Kingdom of Qocho (Gaochang).
• Significance: Demonstrated outstanding political foresight by voluntarily becoming a vassal of Genghis Khan in 1209. This strategic alliance allowed Turpan to avoid destruction during the Mongol conquests, preserve its culture and economic prosperity, while Uyghur script and officials became an important part of the Mongol Empire's administrative apparatus.

Qu Wentai (Reign: 623–640)

• Role: Ruler of the Kingdom of Gaochang from the Chinese Qu dynasty.
• Significance: Known as the patron of the famous Buddhist monk Xuanzang, who stayed in Gaochang during his pilgrimage to India. Qu Wentai highly valued the monk's scholarship and persistently asked him to remain in the kingdom as a spiritual mentor. This episode highlights Turpan's status as one of the major centres of Buddhism at that time.

Emin Khoja (1684/85–1777)

• Role: Uyghur ruler of Turpan, general.
• Significance: A key figure of the 18th century who united local forces and sided with the Qing Empire in the struggle against the Dzungar Khanate. His loyalty to the Qing court ensured stability for the region. In his honour, his son Suleiman built the famous Emin Minaret — the main architectural symbol of Turpan, combining Islamic and local architectural traditions.

Xuanzang (approx. 602–664)

• Role: Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveller, and translator.
• Significance: Although not a native of Turpan, his extended stay in the Kingdom of Gaochang in 630 became a pivotal event in the city's history. His journals, "Great Tang Records on the Western Regions," contain invaluable information about the life, culture, and Buddhist traditions of the Turpan Oasis that have survived to this day.

Kumarajiva (344–413)

• Role: Buddhist monk, philosopher, and one of the greatest translators of Buddhist texts into Chinese.
• Significance: Born in the neighbouring oasis of Kucha, his activities were closely linked to all Buddhist centres of the Silk Road, including Turpan (Gaochang). His translations of sacred texts from Sanskrit had a colossal influence on the development of Buddhism in China and throughout East Asia. Turpan was one of the centres where his teachings found followers and spread further.