Aksum history

Foundation and First Mentions

The ancient city of Aksum is considered the cradle of Ethiopian civilization. Although the exact date of its foundation remains a subject of debate among archaeologists, the settlement flourished in the 1st century AD. It is to this period that the first reliable mentions in ancient sources belong, such as the "Periplus of the Erythraean Sea," where the city is described as an important political centre. Local legends go even deeper into history, linking the origin of the city with the biblical Queen of Sheba and King Solomon.

Key Factors of Formation

The transformation of a small settlement into the capital of a powerful empire was driven by several strategic advantages:

• Geography and Trade: The city was located at the intersection of crucial caravan routes connecting Africa, Arabia, and the Greco-Roman world. Proximity to the port of Adulis on the Red Sea allowed for the control of international trade in ivory, gold, spices, and incense.
• Political Power: Aksumite rulers, who bore the title "Negus," managed to unite scattered tribes and create a centralized state whose influence extended far beyond modern-day Ethiopia.

Early Cultural and Economic Features

The Kingdom of Aksum was one of the first states in the world to begin minting its own gold, silver, and bronze coins, which facilitated trade operations. Culturally, the city became famous for its monumental architecture — the renowned granite stelae (obelisks) erected as tomb monuments for kings. Furthermore, it was here in the 4th century that Christianity was adopted, and the unique Ge'ez script, used in liturgy to this day, was developed.

Key Historical Milestones

• 1st Century AD — The Greek treatise "Periplus of the Erythraean Sea" first mentions Aksum as the capital of an influential trading state.
• 3rd Century — The Persian prophet Mani names the Kingdom of Aksum as one of the four great powers of the world alongside Rome, China, and Persia.
• Around 330 — King Ezana adopts Christianity, making it the state religion, and begins minting coins bearing a cross.
• 4th Century — The period of flourishing monumental construction and the erection of giant granite stelae, which became the symbol of the city.
• 615 — The city's ruler grants asylum to the first Muslims (Companions of the Prophet Muhammad), fleeing persecution from Mecca.
• 7th–8th Centuries — Decline of maritime trade and gradual loss of political influence due to the expansion of the Arab Caliphate.
• Around 960 — The city suffers devastation, which legends attribute to the invasion of Queen Gudit, marking the end of the ancient kingdom.
• 1535 — The forces of Imam Ahmad Gragn destroy the old Cathedral of St. Mary of Zion during their campaigns.
• 17th Century — Emperor Fasilides restores the city's main shrine — the Church of St. Mary of Zion.
• 1906 — A German expedition led by Enno Littmann begins the first large-scale archaeological research of the ruins.
• 1937 — Italian troops remove one of the ancient obelisks to Rome as a trophy.
• 1964 — Emperor Haile Selassie I builds a new majestic cathedral next to the ancient temple.
• 1980 — The city's archaeological sites are included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.
• 2005 — The famous obelisk is returned from Italy to Ethiopia, marking a significant event for national pride.
• 2008 — Ceremonial completion of the re-installation of the returned stela at its historic location in the Northern Stelae Park.

Stages of Urban and Cultural Development

The evolution of the city of Aksum is a journey from a trading crossroads to the spiritual capital of an entire region. Several key milestones can be identified that defined its unique appearance and significance:

• Establishment of Trade Hegemony (1st–2nd Centuries). Transformation of the city into a major logistics hub between the Roman Empire, India, and the African interior. This economic breakthrough ensured an influx of colossal wealth, which funded large-scale urban construction and the development of crafts.
• Monetary Revolution (3rd Century). The commencement of minting its own currency (gold, silver, and bronze) became a crucial economic transformation. This not only simplified international trade but also solidified the city's status as an independent financial centre, equal to the great powers of antiquity.
• Era of Engineering Records (3rd–4th Centuries). The period of creating the famous stelae and obelisks. Installing monoliths weighing hundreds of tonnes required engineering solutions and urban planning unique for that time, forever changing the city's skyline and creating a recognizable architectural style.
• Spiritual Transformation (4th Century). The adoption of Christianity and the construction of the first Church of St. Mary of Zion. This event reoriented the cultural vector of development: the city began to be surrounded by monasteries and churches, turning from an administrative centre into the holy city of Ethiopia.
• Consolidation of Ceremonial Status (10th–19th Centuries). After losing political power, the city retained its exceptional role as the coronation site of emperors. This tradition sustained life in the city during the Middle Ages, contributing to the preservation of ancient rituals, architectural monuments, and cultural identity.
• Global Recognition of Heritage (since 1980). The inclusion of the archaeological zone in the UNESCO World Heritage List launched the process of transforming the historic settlement into a modern tourist centre. The restoration of monuments and infrastructure development have become the new economic foundation for local residents.

Architectural Eras and Urban Development

The appearance of the city of Aksum was formed over millennia, creating a unique architectural landscape where ancient megaliths sit alongside Christian shrines. The city's urban structure historically developed around two centres: the political (palace complexes) and the spiritual (necropolises and temples).

Ancient Aksumite Period (1st–7th Centuries)

The era of the empire's peak, giving the world the region's most recognizable monuments. Architecture of this time is distinguished by monumentality and complex engineering solutions.

• Style: Classical Aksumite architecture. Characterized by monumental dry stone masonry without mortar and a specific technique of reinforcing walls with wooden beams projecting outwards (so-called "monkey heads").
• Iconic Structures:
  • Northern Stelae Park: A complex of granite obelisks, the tallest of which reached 33 metres. The decor of the stelae mimics the facades of multi-storey palaces with windows and false doors.
  • Dungur Palace (Palace of the Queen of Sheba): Ruins of a majestic residential complex west of the centre, demonstrating the layout of a wealthy estate with a central building and service structures.

Medieval and Gondarine Period (17th–18th Centuries)

After the empire's decline and destruction, the city revived, absorbing new trends. During this period, the influence of architectural traditions characteristic of other regions of Ethiopia intensified.

• Style: Ethiopian Baroque (Gondarine style). Distinguished by the use of lime mortar, crenellated walls, and arched constructions, which was uncharacteristic of the early period.
• Iconic Structures:
  • Old Church of St. Mary of Zion: Restored in the 17th century by Emperor Fasilides, the church has a rectangular shape and resembles a fortress, combining ancient Aksumite elements with the architecture of that era.

Modern Stage (20th Century)

In the last century, the city received new landmarks designed to emphasize its status as the country's spiritual capital.

• Style: Neo-Byzantine style and modernism. Use of modern materials (concrete, glass) combined with traditional domed forms.
• Iconic Structures:
  • New Cathedral of St. Mary of Zion: Built in the 1960s under Emperor Haile Selassie I. This massive domed building differs significantly from the surrounding historic buildings and symbolizes the connection between eras.

Distinguished Figures

The history of the city is inextricably linked with the names of great rulers, educators, and legendary figures whose legacy shaped the cultural code not only of the region but of the entire country.

• Queen of Sheba (Makeda) — legendary ruler of the Sabaean Kingdom.
  Although the historicity of her figure remains a subject of debate, for local residents she is a real monarch whose residence was located in the city of Aksum. The ruins of the Dungur Palace and the famous baths are associated with her name, and her visit to King Solomon marked the beginning of the ruling dynasty.
• Menelik I — the first Emperor of Ethiopia, son of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba.
  A key figure in the national epic. According to tradition, it was he who brought the Ark of the Covenant from Jerusalem to Aksum, making the city a sacred centre. Founder of the Solomonic dynasty, which ruled the country for millennia.
• Ezana — King of the Aksumite Empire (4th Century).
  One of the greatest monarchs of antiquity. He was the first to adopt Christianity and proclaim it the state religion. Under him, the empire reached the peak of its power, and coins with Christian symbolism came into circulation.
• Saint Frumentius (Abba Salama) — the first Bishop of Aksum, an educator.
  Of Syrian origin, he became the spiritual mentor to King Ezana. He played a decisive role in the baptism of the country and the establishment of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. He is revered as the "Father of Peace."
• Kaleb (Ella Asbeha) — King of Aksum (6th Century), a saint.
  Known for his military campaigns in South Arabia to protect the Christian population. At the end of his life, he abdicated the throne, sent his crown to Jerusalem, and retired to a monastery. His tomb is an important archaeological monument of the city.
• Endubis — King of Aksum (late 3rd Century).
  Went down in history as the first ruler in Sub-Saharan Africa to begin minting his own coins (gold and silver). This decision elevated the kingdom's economy to an international level, simplifying trade with Rome and India.
• Saint Yared — composer, poet, and theologian (6th Century).
  Born in the vicinity of Aksum. Creator of the unique system of church music (Zema) and musical notation used in Ethiopian liturgy to this day. Considered the patron of spiritual singing.