Carcassonne history

The Birth of a Legendary Fortress

The history of Carcassonne is rooted in deep antiquity. The first traces of human presence at this site date back to the Neolithic era; however, the city began to take shape as a fortified settlement around the 6th century BC. Initially, it was a Gallic oppidum — a fortified settlement on a rocky outcrop dominating the valley.

The Romans played a decisive role in the city's formation. In the 2nd century BC, they incorporated this territory into the province of Gallia Narbonensis. The settlement received the status of a colony and the name Julia Carcaso. It was during the Roman period, specifically in the 3rd–4th centuries AD, that the first stone walls were erected, fragments of which still serve as the foundation for the later medieval fortifications.

Factors of Development

The transformation of Carcassonne into one of the most powerful strategic points in the region was driven by a unique combination of factors:

• Geography: The city is situated on an elevation on the right bank of the Aude River. This location serves as a natural crossroads between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea, as well as between the Massif Central and the Pyrenees.
• Military Control: Thanks to its location, the fortress allowed for the control of troop movements and trade caravans along a key corridor of what is now southern France.
• Change of Power: After the fall of Rome, the city became an important stronghold of the Visigothic Kingdom (5th–8th centuries), which consolidated its status as an impregnable citadel and administrative centre.

Early Culture and Economy

Even in antiquity and the early Middle Ages, Carcassonne was not merely a military fort but also a bustling trade hub. Archaeological finds indicate developed economic ties with Italy and Spain. The local economy relied on:

• Agriculture in the fertile river valley.
• Active trade in wine and ceramics.
• Craft production serving the needs of the garrison and the local population.

The cultural landscape of the early city represented a complex fusion of Gallo-Roman traditions, which were subsequently enriched by the influence of Visigothic culture, creating a unique foundation for the city's flourishing during the feudal era.

Key Historical Milestones

• 6th century BC – The first fortified settlement (oppidum) emerges on the rocky outcrop, becoming the predecessor of the future city.
• 122 BC – The Romans incorporate this territory into the province of Gallia Narbonensis, strengthening the settlement and naming it Julia Carcaso.
• 462 – The Visigoths capture the city, turning it into the northern outpost of their kingdom and updating the Roman defensive structures.
• 725 – Carcassonne temporarily passes under the control of the Umayyad Caliphate during the Arab expansion into Europe.
• 759 – The Frankish King Pippin the Short reconquers the city, definitively returning it to the sphere of influence of the Frankish rulers.
• 1067 – Carcassonne passes into the possession of the Trencavel dynasty, under whom the city experiences a period of prosperity and cultural rise.
• 1209 – During the Albigensian Crusade, the city is besieged and captured by crusader troops led by Simon de Montfort.
• 1226 – The city and surrounding lands officially pass under the direct administration of the French Crown.
• 1240 – Following a failed uprising by the last Trencavel, the construction of a powerful second line of outer walls begins.
• 1247 – King Louis IX founds the Lower City (Bastide) on the left bank of the Aude River, dividing Carcassonne into two parts.
• 1355 – During the Hundred Years' War, Edward the Black Prince burns the Lower City but abandons the assault on the impregnable Citadel.
• 1659 – The signing of the Treaty of the Pyrenees pushes the French border south, causing the fortress to lose its military and strategic significance.
• 1844 – Architect Eugène Viollet-le-Duc begins a massive restoration of the dilapidated fortress, saving it from total demolition.
• 1997 – The historic fortified city of Carcassonne is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List as an outstanding example of medieval architecture.

Stages of Development and Transformation

The evolution of Carcassonne is the story of a transformation from a military citadel into an industrial centre, and subsequently into a global architectural monument. Here are the key stages that defined the modern appearance and status of the city:

• Construction of the Count's Castle (12th century)
  Under the Trencavel dynasty, the Château Comtal was erected within the fortress walls. This event marked the city's transformation into a centre of feudal power and Occitan culture. The castle became a "fortress within a fortress," which significantly strengthened defensive capabilities and altered the internal layout of the Citadel.

• Formation of the Double Ring of Walls (13th century)
  After the city passed under the control of the French Crown, a massive reconstruction began. A second (outer) line of walls was erected, and the space between them (the lists) was levelled. This urban planning decision made Carcassonne a benchmark of medieval fortification and an impregnable military object for centuries to come.

• Urban Split: Founding of the Bastide (1247)
  King Louis IX ordered the destruction of settlements adjacent to the fortress walls and the relocation of residents to the other bank of the Aude River. Thus, the Lower City (Bastide Saint-Louis) emerged with a regular rectangular street layout. This permanently divided Carcassonne into two parts: the military aristocratic Citadel on the hill and the merchant-artisan city in the valley.

• Textile Boom (17th–18th centuries)
  During this period, the economic centre of gravity shifted definitively to the Lower City. Carcassonne became one of the largest centres for woollen fabric production in France. The Royal Manufacture supplied cloth to the Levant, leading to the enrichment of the merchant class and the flourishing of mansion architecture in the Bastide, while the old Citadel began to decay.

• Loss of Military Significance (after 1659)
  The signing of the Treaty of the Pyrenees moved the border with Spain far to the south. Carcassonne lost its strategic status as a border fortress. The military garrison left the Citadel, and it turned into an impoverished residential area, the stones of which locals began to use for constructing other buildings, placing the monument under threat of disappearance.

• Architectural Renaissance (19th century)
  Thanks to the efforts of historian Prosper Mérimée and architect Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, a grand restoration began. This was a turning point: the city ceased to be ruins and acquired its current "romantic" medieval appearance. The project saved the fortress and laid the foundation for the region's future tourism economy.

Urban Structure: Two Cities

The architectural appearance of Carcassonne is unique in its pronounced duality. The city clearly demonstrates two fundamentally different approaches to urban planning, separated by the Aude River:

• Upper City (Cité): Chaotic, organic development dictated by the terrain and military needs. Narrow winding streets and dense arrangement of buildings within the fortress walls are characteristic of the classic Middle Ages.
• Lower City (Bastide Saint-Louis): An example of regular urban planning of the 13th century. The Bastide is built according to a clear geometric plan ("checkerboard") with a central square, which was an innovation for that time and reflected the royal will for order.

Architectural Styles and Eras

The stones of Carcassonne serve as a chronicle in which construction techniques of two millennia are intertwined. The main stylistic layers include:

• Gallo-Roman Style (3rd–4th centuries):

  Preserved in the foundations of the inner fortress walls. A characteristic feature is masonry of small stone blocks interspersed with rows of red brick for strength (opus mixtum). Towers from this period have a horseshoe shape.

• Romanesque Style (11th–12th centuries):

  Vividly represented in the nave of the Basilica of Saints Nazarius and Celsus. This style is characterised by massive walls, powerful round columns, semi-circular arches, and the austerity of interiors, creating an atmosphere of monumentality.

• Rayonnant Gothic (13th–14th centuries):

  Dominates the choir and transept of the same basilica, creating a sharp contrast with the Romanesque nave. The style is distinguished by huge stained-glass windows, slender columns, and a sense of airiness. In civil architecture, Gothic appeared in the temples of the Lower City (Cathedral of St. Michael) and in the construction of the outer ring of walls with their complex system of arrow slits.

• Classicism and Baroque (17th–18th centuries):

  The flourishing of the textile industry transformed the Lower City. Wealthy merchants built mansions (hôtels particuliers) with majestic facades, wrought-iron balconies, and inner courtyards, imitating the Parisian fashion of that time.

• Architectural Romanticism (19th century):

  Restoration under the guidance of Eugène Viollet-le-Duc introduced elements of an idealised Middle Ages. The famous conical roofs of the towers, covered with slate, are more a tribute to Northern Gothic than historical accuracy of the southern region, but they formed the recognisable silhouette of the city.

Iconic Structures

The city's appearance is defined by several key landmarks, each being a masterpiece of its era:

• Count's Castle (Château Comtal): A "fortress within a fortress." An example of feudal military architecture of the 12th century with its own moat and barbican.
• Basilica of Saints Nazarius and Celsus: A unique temple where two eras are physically connected — the Romanesque western nave and the Gothic eastern choir.
• Old Bridge (Pont Vieux): A 14th-century stone structure with 12 arches, which for centuries served as the only connecting link between the Cité and the Bastide.
• Narbonnaise Gate: The main entrance to the citadel, flanked by two huge twin towers, demonstrating the pinnacle of defensive architecture of the 13th century.

Legendary Rulers and Commanders

• Dame Carcas
  Legendary ruler of the city (8th century)
  Although her existence is not confirmed by historical documents, she is the city's main symbol. According to legend, after a five-year siege by Charlemagne, it was she who cunningly forced the Franks to retreat by throwing the last fattened pig from the walls. Rejoicing, she sounded a horn, and the warriors exclaimed: "Carcas sonne!" ("Carcas rings!"), which gave the city its name.

• Raymond-Roger Trencavel
  Viscount of Carcassonne and Béziers (1185–1209)
  A hero of the Occitan resistance. During the Albigensian Crusade, he refused to hand over his Cathar subjects to the crusaders. After a long siege, he surrendered in exchange for the lives of the townspeople, was imprisoned in his own dungeon, where he perished. His fate marked the end of the South's independence.

• Simon de Montfort
  Crusader Commander (c. 1165–1218)
  Leader of the Albigensian Crusade who captured Carcassonne in 1209. He made the city his headquarters and a bridgehead for the further conquest of Languedoc. Montfort's figure is controversial: a cruel conqueror to the locals and a brilliant strategist to the French Crown.

• Louis IX (Saint Louis)
  King of France (1214–1270)
  The monarch who radically changed the appearance of Carcassonne. In 1247, he allowed residents expelled from the fortress to settle on the other bank of the Aude River. Thus, he founded the Lower City (Bastide Saint-Louis), laying the foundations of the city's modern structure.

Saviors of Heritage and Creators

• Prosper Mérimée
  Writer and Inspector-General of Historical Monuments (1803–1870)
  The man who saved Carcassonne from disappearance. In the mid-19th century, the fortress was removed from the list of military sites and condemned to demolition as a stone quarry. Mérimée was the first to realise the uniqueness of the ensemble and secured state funding for its rescue.

• Eugène Viollet-le-Duc
  Architect and Restorer (1814–1879)
  Author of the grand restoration project of the Cité. He dedicated decades to restoring the walls, towers, and cathedral, literally raising the city from ruins. Although his work is sometimes criticised for excessive romanticisation (for example, the pointed roofs), it is thanks to him that we see Carcassonne as it is today.

• Fabre d'Églantine
  Poet, actor, and figure of the French Revolution (1750–1794)
  A native of Carcassonne who became a prominent figure in Paris. He is known as the creator of the names of the months in the French Republican calendar (Brumaire, Thermidor, etc.) and the author of the popular folk song "Il pleut, il pleut, bergère".

• Paul Sabatier
  Chemist (1854–1941)
  An outstanding scientist born in Carcassonne. In 1912, he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his method of hydrogenating organic compounds, which paved the way for the creation of many modern products, from margarine to synthetic fuel.

• Joë Bousquet
  Surrealist Poet (1897–1950)
  Wounded in World War I and paralysed, he spent most of his life in his room in Carcassonne with the shutters closed. Despite this, his home became a place of pilgrimage for the intellectual elite of Europe: he was visited by Salvador Dalí, André Gide, Paul Éluard, and Max Ernst.