Cusco history

The history of Cusco is the story of the transformation of a mythical settlement into the heart of one of the greatest civilizations of pre-Columbian America. The city, whose name in the Quechua language means "Navel of the World", was for centuries not merely a capital, but the sacred, political, and cultural centre of a vast Inca empire.

Foundation and First Mentions

Although archaeological evidence suggests that people have lived in this valley for over 3,000 years, the legendary founding of the city is attributed to the first Inca, Manco Cápac. According to legend, he and his sister-consort Mama Ocllo emerged from the waters of Lake Titicaca and set out to find fertile land where their golden staff would easily sink into the earth. This place became the future Cusco. The city was originally designed in the shape of a puma — an animal sacred to the Incas, which emphasized its holy status.

Key Factors of Formation

The rapid rise of Cusco was driven by several interconnected factors:

• Geographical Location: Situated in the fertile Urubamba River valley at an altitude of approximately 3,400 metres, the city held strategic importance, controlling vital routes within the Andes.
• Political Power: Cusco was the absolute centre of the Tahuantinsuyo Empire. From here, the Sapa Inca ruled, and it was here that the four main roads connecting the capital to the four provinces of the state converged. The city was the residence of the ruling elite and the high priesthood.
• Economic System: The Inca economy was centralized and did not involve trade in the modern sense. Cusco was the main hub for the collection and redistribution of resources arriving from all corners of the empire in the form of tribute and labour service (mita).

Early Cultural and Economic Features

Early Cusco was a showcase of Inca power. Its cultural hallmark became its unique architecture — monumental stone masonry, where giant blocks were perfectly fitted together without the use of mortar. The main religious centre was the Coricancha temple, or Temple of the Sun, the walls of which were reputedly covered with gold plates. The economy was based on highly developed agriculture, including the use of mountain terraces, and centralized control over resources, including precious metals, which held ritual rather than monetary value. After the Spanish conquest in the 16th century, colonial churches and mansions were erected upon the foundations of Inca palaces and temples, creating the unique architectural appearance of modern Cusco.

Major Historical Milestones

• c. 1200 — The legendary ruler Manco Cápac founds the settlement that would eventually become the heart of the Inca Empire.

• 1438 — Emperor Pachacuti begins a massive reconstruction of Cusco, giving the city the shape of a puma and erecting monumental stone structures.

• 1533 — Spanish conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro enter the Inca capital, establishing colonial rule.

• 1536 — Manco Inca Yupanqui organizes a massive siege of the city in an attempt to restore independence to the indigenous population.

• 1560 — Construction begins on the Cathedral on the site of the palace of Inca Viracocha, a project that would last nearly a hundred years.

• 1650 — A devastating earthquake damages the city, giving rise to the flourishing of the unique "Andean Baroque" architectural style.

• 1692 — The National University of Saint Anthony the Abbot is founded, becoming one of the oldest and most important educational centres in the region.

• 1780 — A major rebellion breaks out under the leadership of Túpac Amaru II against Spanish colonial oppression.

• 1825 — Simón Bolívar makes a ceremonial visit to the city after the proclamation of the independence of Peru, symbolizing the beginning of the republican era.

• 1911 — The expedition of Hiram Bingham, departing from the city, reveals Machu Picchu to the world, forever changing the destiny of the region.

• 1933 — At the Congress of Americanists, the city is officially awarded the honorary title of "Archaeological Capital of the Americas".

• 1950 — A strong earthquake damages many colonial buildings but reveals the perfectly preserved Inca walls hidden beneath them.

• 1983 — The historic centre of the city is included in the UNESCO World Heritage list as an outstanding example of the fusion of two cultures.

• 2007 — The recognition of nearby Machu Picchu as one of the New Seven Wonders of the World transforms the city into one of the main tourism hubs of South America.

Stages of Cusco's Development: From Inca Capital to Tourism Centre

• Foundation and Transformation into the "Navel of the World". Originally a small settlement, Cusco was transformed in the 15th century under the rule of Inca Pachacuti. The city became not just a capital, but the ideological and spiritual centre of the Tahuantinsuyo Empire. A unique urban layout was created in the shape of a puma, a sacred animal to the Incas, while streets and squares were oriented according to astronomical principles. This laid the foundation for its monumental architecture and cultural significance.

• Spanish Colonization and Cultural Synthesis. With the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century, a new stage of development began. Catholic cathedrals and Baroque-style mansions were erected on the foundations of Inca palaces and temples. This architectural symbiosis, where the Spanish superstructure rests upon an indestructible Inca base, became the city's calling card. During this period, the famous "Cusco School" emerged — a unique movement in painting that combined European religious subjects with local character and techniques.

• Discovery of Machu Picchu and the Birth of Tourism. Although Machu Picchu was never "lost" to locals, its "scientific discovery" by Hiram Bingham in 1911 was a turning point for Cusco's economy. The city transformed from a provincial centre of Peru into a departure point for explorers and travellers from around the world. This event laid the groundwork for the modern tourism industry.

• UNESCO Recognition and Heritage Preservation. In 1983, the historic centre of Cusco was included in the UNESCO World Heritage list. This recognition not only confirmed its outstanding cultural value but also attracted international investment for the restoration and preservation of its unique appearance. Its status as a world heritage site enhanced the city's appeal to tourists and fostered the development of infrastructure oriented towards guests.

• Modern Tourism Hub. Today, Cusco is the main tourism centre of Peru and one of the key gateways to the world of Inca heritage. The entire urban economy — from hotels and restaurants to transport services and souvenir markets — is geared towards serving travellers, making it a comfortable base for exploring the Sacred Valley.

The architecture of Cusco is a unique stone dialogue between two civilizations: the monumental Inca and the ornate Spanish colonial. The city represents a living museum where churches and mansions rise upon the foundations of ancient palaces and temples, creating a distinctive appearance recognized as world heritage.

The Inca Era: Harmony with Nature and the Power of Stone

Inca urban planning was subject to both practical and sacred goals. The capital of their empire was planned in the shape of a puma — a sacred animal, with the fortress-temple of Sacsayhuamán forming the head and the central square representing the heart. The basis of Inca architecture was cyclopean stone masonry: giant polygonal blocks were perfectly fitted to one another without the use of mortar. This seismic-resistant technology allowed many walls to survive centuries and severe earthquakes.

• Landmark Structures: The foundations of the Coricancha temple (Temple of the Sun), upon which the Convent of Santo Domingo now stands, and the walls of the palace of Inca Roca, which houses the famous Twelve-Angled Stone on Hatun Rumiyoc Street.

The Spanish Colonial Period: Baroque on Andean Soil

With the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century, the appearance of Cusco began to change radically. The conquerors built their churches, monasteries, and homes directly upon surviving Inca foundations, symbolizing the victory of the new faith and power. After the destructive earthquake of 1650, a period of active construction began, during which a distinct architectural style was formed — Andean Baroque (or Mestizo style). It combined European forms with elements of local flora, fauna, and indigenous motifs, giving the buildings a unique character.

• Landmark Structures: The Cathedral on the Plaza de Armas, built in a blend of Gothic, Renaissance, and Baroque styles, and the Church of La Compañía de Jesús (Church of the Society of Jesus), considered one of the finest examples of Andean Baroque in the Americas.

Modern Development: Preserving Heritage

In the 20th and 21st centuries, urban development in Cusco has focused on preserving its unique historic centre. After the 1950 earthquake, which once again exposed the strength of the Inca walls beneath colonial structures, large-scale restoration works began. Today, any new construction in the historic area is strictly regulated to ensure it does not disrupt the harmonious fusion of two great architectural traditions, which makes Cusco one of the most impressive cities in the world.

Distinguished Figures in the History of Cusco

Cusco, as an ancient capital and cultural centre, has been the birthplace and sphere of activity for many iconic figures who left their mark on the history of Peru and the world. From great Inca rulers to artists and writers — here are some of them.

• Pachacútec Inca Yupanqui — The ninth ruler of the Incas (Sapa Inca), who lived in the 15th century. He is considered the architect of the Inca Empire, transforming the small Kingdom of Cusco into the mighty state of Tahuantinsuyo. Under his rule, many landmark structures were built, including Machu Picchu, and Cusco itself was rebuilt.
• Inca Garcilaso de la Vega — Writer and historian (1539–1616), one of the first Mestizo authors in Latin America. His major work, "Royal Commentaries of the Incas", is an invaluable source of information regarding the history, culture, and daily life of the Inca civilization.
• Diego Quispe Tito — A leading painter of the 17th century and one of the most brilliant representatives of the "Cusco School". In his works, he masterfully combined European Baroque techniques with local Andean motifs, creating a unique artistic style that defined the art of colonial Peru.
• Túpac Amaru II — Leader of the largest anti-colonial rebellion in the Andes (1780–1781). A descendant of the last Inca ruler, he led the indigenous movement against Spanish dominion. His rebellion was brutally suppressed, and he was executed in the central square of Cusco, becoming a symbol of the struggle for independence.
• Clorinda Matto de Turner — A distinguished writer and journalist of the 19th century, and one of the founders of the "Indigenismo" literary movement. In her famous novel "Birds Without a Nest", she boldly raised the issue of the oppression of the indigenous population, causing significant public resonance.
• Marcos Zapata — A Peruvian painter of the 18th century, another prominent representative of the Cusco School of painting. His most famous work is "The Last Supper" in the Cusco Cathedral, where a roasted guinea pig (cuy) is depicted as the central dish on the table, serving as a vivid example of the fusion of cultures.
• Túpac Amaru — The last ruler of the Incas from the so-called "Neo-Inca State" in Vilcabamba. After being captured by the Spanish, he was publicly executed in Cusco in 1572. His death marked the final fall of organized Inca resistance.