Sigiriya history

Foundation and First Mentions

The history of Sigiriya is rooted in deep antiquity. Archaeological evidence suggests that the rock shelters and caves in this area were used by Buddhist hermit monks as early as the 3rd century BC. However, the transformation of this site into a majestic fortress city occurred much later.

Sigiriya owes its golden age and current appearance to King Kashyapa (477–495 AD). It was he who selected the massive rock amidst the jungle for the construction of his new capital, turning it into a unique palace complex that was designed to resemble the mythical city of the gods, Alakamanda.

Key Formation Factors

The transformation of a secluded monastery into a thriving centre of power was driven by a combination of strategic and ambitious goals:

• Geographic Advantage: The immense rock monolith, rising approximately 200 metres high, provided natural protection and a panoramic view of the surroundings, making the fortress practically impregnable to enemies.
• Political Will: Moving the capital from the traditional centre, Anuradhapura, allowed for the creation of a new, independent administrative hub with a unique layout, protected by moats and ramparts.
• Symbolism of Power: The construction of the grandiose lion-shaped gateway (hence the name "Sinhagiri" — Lion Rock) was intended to demonstrate the power and grandeur of the ruler to all subjects and visitors.

Early Cultural and Economic Features

Even in the early period of its existence, Sigiriya demonstrated an incredibly high level of engineering and artistic development. The economy of the palace city was based on efficient resource management and the labour of the best artisans of Sri Lanka.

Key features of the ancient city included:

• Advanced Hydraulic Engineering: A complex system of water gardens was created with pools, canals, and fountains operating on the principles of communicating vessels and gravity. This system functions even today.
• Fine Arts: The famous frescoes depicting "celestial maidens" on the western face of the rock indicate a refined aesthetic taste and the richness of the court's cultural life.
• The Mirror Wall: A wall made of a special type of porcelain was polished so highly that the king could see his reflection in it. Later, it became a "guestbook" where ancient visitors left verses, testifying to the high literacy rate of the population in that era.

Chronology of Events

The history of Sigiriya spans millennia, evolving from an ascetic refuge into a royal residence and a world-renowned monument.

• 3rd Century BC — Rock caves begin to be used by Buddhist hermit monks as a mountain monastery, as evidenced by Brahmi donation inscriptions.
• 477 AD — King Kashyapa I chooses the impregnable rock for the construction of a new capital and begins building the palace complex.
• 477–495 AD — The city's golden age: creation of the famous water gardens, the "Mirror Wall," and the painting of the western rock face with unique frescoes.
• 495 AD — Following the death of King Kashyapa, the capital returns to Anuradhapura, and Sigiriya loses its status as a political centre.
• 6th–7th Centuries — The complex is once again handed over to the Buddhist clergy, becoming a major monastic centre with new religious structures.
• 8th–10th Centuries — A period of active pilgrimage, when visitors leave verses and comments (graffiti) on the "Mirror Wall," admiring the beauty of the frescoes.
• 1155 — By this time, the monastery falls into decline and is finally abandoned by people, after which the ancient city is reclaimed by the jungle.
• 16th–17th Centuries — The rock is occasionally used as a military outpost for the Kingdom of Kandy, but no large-scale settlement occurs.
• 1831 — British officer Jonathan Forbes accidentally discovers the "Lion Rock" during a horseback ride, bringing the monument back from oblivion.
• 1890s — The Archaeological Department of Ceylon, under the leadership of H.C.P. Bell, begins the first large-scale excavations and site clearance.
• 1982 — The ancient city of Sigiriya is officially included in the UNESCO World Heritage list as a masterpiece of ancient urban planning and art.
• Present Day — Sigiriya is a key tourist attraction in Sri Lanka and a site for the "Cultural Triangle" heritage conservation project.

Key Development Milestones and Their Significance

The development of Sigiriya represents a unique example of how a natural feature was transformed into a complex urban organism, then became a centre of spiritual life, and in modern times turned into a driver of the region's tourism economy. The main stages of these transformations can be highlighted in the following points:

• Creation of the City Master Plan (5th Century).

  The transformation of the rock into a capital marked a revolution in the urban planning of ancient Sri Lanka. An "eco-design" concept was introduced, combining symmetrical man-made structures (water gardens) with asymmetrical natural elements (boulder gardens). This laid the foundation for a unique architectural landscape that is studied by urban planners to this day.

• Implementation of Advanced Hydraulic Systems.

  The construction of a complex network of underground canals, sluices, and fountains had not only aesthetic but also important practical significance. The system provided an autonomous water supply to the palace at the summit and cooled the air in the gardens, demonstrating a high level of engineering thought and resource management.

• Formation of the "Mirror Wall" Cultural Phenomenon (8th–10th Centuries).

  During this period, Sigiriya transformed from a closed royal residence into an object of admiration for beauty. The appearance of thousands of graffiti (verses) on the wall testifies to the development of literature and literacy among the population, as well as the birth of "ancient tourism," when people travelled here specifically to contemplate art.

• Scientific Restoration and the "Cultural Triangle" Project (1980s).

  Including Sigiriya in a massive government heritage conservation project was a turning point. This led to the systematization of archaeological work, the conservation of frescoes, and the creation of infrastructure, allowing the monument to be preserved for future generations.

• Designation as a UNESCO World Heritage Site (1982).

  This event integrated Sigiriya into the global cultural context. International recognition attracted investment in the site's preservation and radically changed the region's economy, making tourism the main source of income for the local population.

Urban Planning Concept and Era

The architectural appearance of Sigiriya is unique in that it is not the result of centuries of evolution, but the realization of a single grand vision brought to life during the short reign of King Kashyapa (5th century AD). It is one of the best-preserved examples of ancient urban planning in Asia, dating back to the late Anuradhapura period.

The master plan of the complex is based on a strict geometric grid and the concept of "eco-design", where man-made structures are harmoniously woven into the natural landscape. The city was designed as an earthly reflection of the celestial city of the gods, which defined its monumentality and aesthetics.

Architectural Zones and Stylistics

The Sigiriya complex is clearly zoned, and each zone demonstrates a distinct approach to architecture and landscape design:

• Royal Water Gardens (Western Zone):

  Here, classical symmetry reigns. The gardens are laid out in rectangular plots with pools, canals, and fountains. This style resembles the Persian "Charbagh" gardens but was created long before them, demonstrating the high level of hydraulic engineering in ancient Sri Lanka.

• Boulder Gardens:

  In contrast to the geometric strictness of the water gardens, an organic style is used here. Architects did not destroy the huge boulders that had rolled down from the mountain but built structures into them. Brick and wooden pavilions were attached to the tops of the boulders, while narrow passages between the rocks were turned into arches and gateways.

• Terraced Gardens:

  The zone connecting the base to the summit is designed as a series of terraces rising up the slope. The walls are built of brick and stone, creating a smooth transition from the jungle to the sheer rock face.

Iconic Structures and Elements

The appearance of Sigiriya is formed by several key objects that demonstrate the pinnacle of 5th-century engineering and artistic thought:

• Lion Gate:

  A monumental entrance on the northern plateau. The huge brick lion paws, which have survived to this day, give an idea of the scale of the lost upper part — the lion's head, through the jaws of which a staircase led to the palace. This is a vivid example of symbolic architecture designed to inspire awe.

• Celestial Palace (Citadel):

  Located on the flat summit of the rock (covering an area of about 1.5 hectares), the palace was a complex set of buildings. Although the wooden superstructures have not survived, the foundations indicate the presence of pools, a throne room, and living quarters oriented to the cardinal directions.

• The Mirror Wall:

  A unique element of engineering art — a brick wall covered with a special plaster made of lime, egg white, and beeswax, polished to a mirror sheen. It served as a parapet for the gallery leading to the summit.

Materials and Technologies

Construction in Sigiriya utilized primarily fired brick, stone (gneiss), and wood. Craftsmen applied complex methods for anchoring brickwork onto steep rock surfaces, carving special grooves and ledges ("katara") into the stone to prevent structures from slipping and to drain rainwater.

Ancient Rulers and Dynasty

The history of Sigiriya is inextricably linked to dramatic events within the royal family in the 5th century AD. It was this dynastic conflict that gave the world a unique monument.

• King Kashyapa I (477–495 AD)
  Role: King of Anuradhapura, founder of Sigiriya.
  Historical Significance: The chief architect and visionary behind the city's creation. Having seized the throne from his father, he moved the capital to the rock, turning it into an impregnable fortress and a masterpiece of landscape art to protect himself from his brother's retribution.
• King Dhatusena (455–477 AD)
  Role: King, father of Kashyapa and Moggallana.
  Historical Significance: His tragic death (he was walled up alive by his own son, Kashyapa) became the starting point of the conflict that led to the construction of Sigiriya as a refuge for the usurper.
• King Moggallana I (491–515 AD)
  Role: Legitimate heir to the throne, brother of Kashyapa.
  Historical Significance: Returned from exile with an army to overthrow Kashyapa. After his victory, he moved the capital back to Anuradhapura and handed Sigiriya over to Buddhist monks, ending its short era as a royal residence.

Explorers and Guardians of Heritage

After centuries of oblivion, Sigiriya was returned to the world thanks to the efforts of British military personnel and archaeologists, as well as Sri Lankan scholars.

• Jonathan Forbes
  Role: Major of the 78th Highlanders of the British Army.
  Historical Significance: In 1831, while returning on horseback from a trip to Polonnaruwa, he accidentally stumbled upon the jungle-covered rock. His discovery put Sigiriya back on the map and attracted the attention of historians.
• Harry Charles Purvis Bell (H.C.P. Bell)
  Role: First Commissioner of the Archaeological Department of Ceylon.
  Historical Significance: In the 1890s, he began the first systematic excavations of the complex. Under his leadership, much of the area was cleared, the summit was surveyed, and many hidden architectural elements were discovered.
• John Still
  Role: British archaeologist, assistant to H.C.P. Bell, author.
  Historical Significance: Actively participated in excavations and popularized Sigiriya in his books (e.g., "The Jungle Tide"), describing in detail the grandeur of the ruins and the complexity of working in the jungle.
• Senarath Paranavithana
  Role: Archaeological Commissioner of Sri Lanka, distinguished epigraphist.
  Historical Significance: Conducted colossal work on deciphering the ancient inscriptions on the "Mirror Wall." Thanks to him, the world learned about the thoughts and feelings of people who visited Sigiriya over a thousand years ago, providing invaluable cultural context to the monument.