Istanbul history

Foundation and First Mentions

The history of the metropolis known today as Istanbul dates back to the 7th century BC. According to historical tradition, the city named Byzantium was founded around 660 BC by Greek colonists from Megara. Legend has it that the leader of the settlers, Byzas, chose this location following a prophecy from the Oracle of Delphi, who advised him to settle "opposite the blind"—referring to the inhabitants of Chalcedon, who had failed to notice the strategically advantageous promontory on the opposite shore.

Key Factors of Formation

The city's rapid growth and significance were driven by a unique combination of geographical and geopolitical conditions:

• Strategic Geography: Its location at the crossroads of Europe and Asia, along with control over the Bosphorus Strait connecting the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara, transformed the city into a crucial transport hub of the ancient world.
• Trade Monopoly: Possession of the strait allowed for the control of maritime trade routes, the collection of duties from passing vessels, and dominance in the trade of grain and other resources.
• Natural Defence: The deep-water Golden Horn inlet served as an ideal natural harbour for the fleet, while the terrain facilitated defence against enemies from the land.

Early Cultural and Economic Features

In the early period of its existence, Byzantium developed as a classic polis with Hellenic culture. The city's economic foundation relied on fishing (especially the catch of bonito and tuna), viticulture, and transit trade. The city minted its own currency and actively interacted with its neighbours. Later, falling into the orbit of Roman influence, it retained its importance, which ultimately led to Emperor Constantine the Great's decision to make it the new capital of the empire. This event forever changed the history of the region where modern Turkey is located.

Major Historical Milestones

• 660 BC — Greek colonists from Megara establish the settlement of Byzantium on the Sarayburnu promontory, where the historical heart of Istanbul is located today.
• 330 AD — Emperor Constantine the Great proclaims the city the capital of the Roman Empire, naming it New Rome, which is soon changed to Constantinople.
• 537 AD — Construction of the grand Hagia Sophia is completed, becoming the architectural symbol of the city for millennia.
• 1204 AD — The city is captured and looted by participants of the Fourth Crusade, dealing an irreparable blow to the power of Byzantium.
• 1453 AD — The forces of Sultan Mehmed II conquer Constantinople, making it the capital of the Ottoman Empire and opening a new chapter in the region's history.
• 1520–1566 — The era of Suleiman the Magnificent's reign, marked by the flourishing of arts and the construction of outstanding architectural monuments, such as the Süleymaniye Mosque.
• 1845 — The first wooden Galata Bridge is built across the Golden Horn, significantly improving connections between the city's districts.
• 1923 — Following the proclamation of the Turkish Republic, the state capital is moved to Ankara.
• 1930 — A law is passed officially establishing the name "Istanbul" and prohibiting the use of the name Constantinople in official correspondence.
• 1973 — The Bosphorus Bridge opens, connecting Europe and Asia by a land highway for the first time in modern history.
• 1985 — The historic districts of the city are included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.
• 2013 — The Marmaray rail tunnel is launched, running under the Bosphorus Strait and uniting the transport systems of two continents.

Key Stages of Urban Transformation

• Birth of an Imperial Capital (4th Century). Constantine the Great's decision to move the capital of the Roman Empire to the shores of the Bosphorus triggered unprecedented urban development. The construction of forums, the Hippodrome, and palace complexes established the radial layout of the centre, which defines the structure of the historic peninsula to this day.
• Justinian's Engineering Triumph (6th Century). The construction of the magnificent Hagia Sophia and the creation of a unique water supply system with underground cisterns secured the city's status as the technological and cultural leader of the ancient world, attracting craftsmen and pilgrims.
• Ottoman Trade Expansion (15th–16th Centuries). After 1453, the city, now known as Istanbul, received a powerful economic impulse. The construction of the Grand Bazaar and mosque complexes (külliye) formed a unique urban model where trade, religion, and social life were inextricably linked.
• Europeanisation and Transport Revolution (19th Century). The Tanzimat era brought modern technologies: trams, gas lighting, and the "Tünel" metro appeared. The Pera district was developed with European-style buildings, becoming a centre for banking and international diplomacy.
• Industrialisation and Bridges (Second Half of the 20th Century). The opening of the first bridge across the Bosphorus in 1973 radically changed logistics, physically connecting Europe and Asia. This stimulated mass settlement of the Asian side and transformed the city into a unified transcontinental agglomeration.
• Global Hub (21st Century). The implementation of mega-projects, such as the Marmaray tunnel and the new airport, as well as the revitalisation of historic districts, have definitively established the metropolis as a major tourism and financial centre, of which modern Turkey is proud.

Byzantine Era: Legacy of New Rome

The architectural foundation upon which modern Istanbul stands was laid during the time of the Eastern Roman Empire. This period is characterised by the Byzantine style, distinguished by the use of massive brickwork, rich mosaic decoration, and large-scale domed structures symbolising the heavenly vault.

• Iconic Landmarks: Hagia Sophia (Ayasofya)—an unsurpassed masterpiece of 6th-century engineering, the Basilica Cistern, and the mighty Theodosian Walls.
• Urban Planning: The layout was defined by a system of forums and broad avenues (Mese), connecting the main public and religious centres.

Classical Ottoman Period: Era of Domes and Minarets

After 1453, the city began to acquire its recognisable eastern silhouette. The Classical Ottoman style reached its apogee in the 16th century thanks to the genius of the architect Sinan. Buildings from this time demonstrate perfect symmetry, vertical aspiration, and exquisite decoration with Iznik ceramics.

• Iconic Landmarks: The Süleymaniye Mosque, the Blue Mosque (Sultanahmet), and the Topkapi Palace complex.
• Features: The urban fabric formed around "külliye"—charitable complexes attached to mosques, which included schools, baths, and hospitals.

Europeanisation and Eclecticism: Winds of Change in the 19th Century

In the Tanzimat era, the city's architecture, like all of Turkey at the time, turned towards Western trends. Traditional forms were replaced by Baroque, Rococo, Neoclassicism, and Art Nouveau. Sultans moved from medieval chambers to European-style palaces on the shores of the Bosphorus.

• Iconic Landmarks: The luxurious Dolmabahçe Palace, the elegant Ortaköy Mosque, and the Beyoğlu (Pera) district with its elegant arcades and apartment buildings.
• Style: The blending of cultures gave birth to a unique "Ottoman Baroque," combining the opulence of European decor with Eastern elements.

Modernism and Contemporary Times

In the 20th and 21st centuries, the city became a field for experiments in Modernism and Postmodernism. Rapid urbanisation led to the emergence of new business districts with glass and concrete skyscrapers, creating a contrasting backdrop for historic minarets.

• Iconic Districts: Levent and Maslak have become centres of high-rise construction and financial life.
• Trends: Modern projects often strive for the revitalisation of industrial zones, turning old shipyards and factories into cultural spaces and lofts.

Distinguished Personalities in the City's History

The biographies of these individuals are inextricably linked with the destiny of Istanbul. Their decisions, reforms, and creativity shaped the unique character of the city that Turkey takes pride in today.

• Constantine I the Great — Roman Emperor. In 330, he officially moved the empire's capital to ancient Byzantium, naming it New Rome (later Constantinople). This decision transformed the city into the political and religious centre of the world for more than a millennium.
• Justinian I — Byzantine Emperor (6th century). Initiator of the capital's massive reconstruction, gifting the city its primary symbol—the Hagia Sophia. Under him, Constantinople reached the peak of its splendour as a bastion of Eastern Christianity.
• Mehmed II the Conqueror (Fatih) — Ottoman Sultan. In 1453, he conquered the city, making it the capital of the Ottoman Empire. He began the active restoration of the metropolis, founded the Grand Bazaar and Topkapi Palace, and invited artisans to revive cultural life.
• Suleiman I the Magnificent — Sultan whose reign (16th century) is called the "Golden Age". He radically changed the architectural landscape by sponsoring the construction of majestic mosques, aqueducts, and public complexes.
• Mimar Sinan — The great Ottoman architect and engineer. Over his long life, he designed hundreds of buildings, creating the city's classic silhouette of domes and minarets. The Süleymaniye Mosque is considered his masterpiece.
• Mustafa Kemal Atatürk — Founder and first President of the Republic of Turkey. Although he moved the capital to Ankara, the city on the Bosphorus remained his favourite place, where he often worked at the Dolmabahçe Palace. His reforms transformed the city into a modern secular metropolis.
• Orhan Pamuk — Contemporary writer and Nobel Prize laureate in Literature. A native of the city, who in his books (such as "Istanbul: Memories and the City") masterfully conveyed the atmosphere, history, and unique melancholy of the ancient streets.