Baghdad history

The history of Baghdad is the story of how one of the greatest cities of its time emerged on the banks of the Tigris River, becoming the heart of a thriving civilisation. Although settlements in this region existed earlier, modern Baghdad was founded as the capital of the powerful Abbasid Caliphate.

Foundation and the "City of Peace"

The founding date of Baghdad is considered to be July 30, 762. The construction was initiated by the second caliph of the Abbasid dynasty, Abu Ja'far al-Mansur. He sought to move the capital from Damascus to the east, closer to the centre of his political and military supporters. The location was strategically chosen: at the intersection of trade routes, in fertile Mesopotamia, where the Tigris and Euphrates rivers converge. Initially, the city was named Madinat al-Salam, which means "City of Peace", and featured a unique circular layout symbolising the centre of the universe. The city's diameter was about 2-3 kilometres; it was surrounded by double walls, with the Caliph's palace situated at the very centre.

Key Factors of Establishment

The rapid growth of Baghdad was driven by several reasons:

• Political Power: As the capital of the vast Abbasid Caliphate, the city became the centre of administrative and military might, where taxes and resources flowed from across the empire.
• Geographical Location: Its position on the Tigris River and proximity to caravan routes turned Baghdad into a major hub of transit trade between Asia, Arabia, and Europe.
• Economic Development: Crafts flourished in the city, and goods from all over the world arrived at its markets—from spices and silk to precious metals.

Early Cultural and Economic Flourishing

In the 9th and 10th centuries, Baghdad transformed into the primary cultural and scientific centre of the Islamic world and one of the largest cities on the planet. This period went down in history as the Golden Age of Islam. A key role in this was played by the "House of Wisdom" (Bayt al-Hikma)—an academy founded by Caliph Harun al-Rashid and significantly expanded by his son al-Ma'mun. In the "House of Wisdom", scholars from around the world translated the works of Greek, Persian, and Indian thinkers, such as Aristotle, Plato, and Euclid, into Arabic. Thanks to this, knowledge in the fields of mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and philosophy was preserved and developed. The city became a symbol of enlightenment, boasting over 30 libraries by the beginning of the 13th century.

Key Milestones in the History of Baghdad

The history of Baghdad is a kaleidoscope of rises and falls, reflecting the fate of all Mesopotamia. From a shining capital of world science to a city that has survived numerous conquests, here are the main stages of its journey.

• 762 — Foundation of the city. Abbasid Caliph Abu Ja'far al-Mansur laid the foundations for the new capital, naming it Madinat al-Salam ("City of Peace").
• 9th–10th Centuries — The Golden Age. Baghdad becomes the world's largest scientific, cultural, and economic hub, and the "House of Wisdom" (Bayt al-Hikma) established here becomes the main centre for translation and the preservation of knowledge.
• 1055 — Transition to Seljuk rule. The city becomes part of the Seljuk Empire, although the Abbasid caliphs retain spiritual authority.
• 1258 — Mongol Invasion. The troops of Hulagu Khan capture and destroy Baghdad, leading to the end of the Golden Age of Islam and the city's decline for centuries.
• 1401 — Conquest by Tamerlane. The city undergoes another devastating invasion by the forces of Timur.
• 1534 — Incorporation into the Ottoman Empire. Sultan Suleiman I the Magnificent conquers Baghdad, which becomes an important administrative centre in the east of the empire.
• 1623–1638 — Period of Persian rule. The city temporarily passes under the control of Safavid Iran but is subsequently recaptured by the Ottomans.
• 1917 — Beginning of British rule. During World War I, British troops occupy Baghdad, ending centuries of Ottoman dominion.
• 1921 — Capital of the Kingdom of Iraq. Baghdad becomes the capital of the newly formed Kingdom of Iraq under the British Mandate.
• 1958 — Proclamation of the Republic. As a result of a revolution, the monarchy is overthrown, and Baghdad becomes the capital of the independent Republic of Iraq.

Major Milestones in Baghdad's Development

Baghdad's path is a history of great transformations. The city has repeatedly changed its appearance, evolving from the scientific centre of the world into a modern metropolis. Here are several key stages that defined its destiny.

• Foundation of the "Round City" (762): An urban planning revolution of its time. Conceived by Caliph al-Mansur, the capital was built as a perfect circle, symbolising the centre of the world. This unique layout, with the palace and mosque in the centre and streets radiating outwards, became the foundation for rapid growth and Baghdad's transformation into one of the largest cities on the planet.
• "House of Wisdom" and the Golden Age (9th–10th Centuries): Cultural and economic flourishing. The creation of the "House of Wisdom" (Bayt al-Hikma) academy turned Baghdad into the world's premier scientific centre. Scholars gathered here to translate and develop the works of ancient thinkers. This contributed not only to cultural but also to economic prosperity, as knowledge in medicine, mathematics, and engineering found practical application.
• Destruction by Mongols (1258): The end of an era of prosperity. The capture and looting of the city by Hulagu Khan's troops led to catastrophic consequences. Not only were priceless libraries destroyed, including the "House of Wisdom", but complex irrigation systems were also ruined, which undermined the region's agriculture for centuries and led to a long decline.
• Reforms of Midhat Pasha (1869–1872): First steps towards modernisation. As the Ottoman governor, Midhat Pasha implemented a series of important reforms: he established the first newspaper, opened modern schools and a hospital, established steamship communication on the Tigris, and even built a short tram line. These transformations sparked a revival of urban life after centuries of stagnation.
• Status as Capital of the Kingdom of Iraq (1921): Political and urban revival. The proclamation of Baghdad as the capital of a new state restored its former significance. Active construction of government buildings began, along with the development of modern infrastructure and population growth, laying the foundation for the future metropolis.
• "Oil Boom" (1950–1970s): Economic leap and massive urbanisation. Revenues from oil exports allowed for the implementation of ambitious projects. New bridges, highways, modern residential districts were built in Baghdad, and the University of Baghdad was founded. The city rapidly transformed into a modern capital.
• Architectural Modernism (Mid-20th Century): Aspiration for global status. To create a new architectural image for Baghdad, stars of world architecture such as Le Corbusier, Walter Gropius, and Frank Lloyd Wright were invited. Although not all their projects were realised, their very participation symbolised Iraq's desire to integrate its capital into the global cultural context and make it a showcase of progress in the Middle East.

The architectural appearance of Baghdad is a multi-layered story reflecting the succession of great empires, cultural currents, and ambitious urban planning projects. From the legendary round city of the Abbasids to the monumental structures of the 20th century, each period has left its unique mark on the urban fabric.

Abbasid Caliphate: The Islamic Renaissance

The founding of Baghdad in 762 was a revolutionary act of urban planning. Caliph al-Mansur erected Madinat al-Salam ("City of Peace") in the form of a perfect circle with a diameter of about 2.5 km, symbolising the centre of the world in Islamic cosmology. The city was surrounded by double walls, and the Caliph's palace and the grand mosque were located in its centre. Although the round city itself has not survived, its influence on Islamic architecture was immense. Iconic structures of this era that have reached us in reconstructed forms include the Abbasid Palace and the Mustansiriya Madrasa (1227). They are characterised by an exquisite style with patterned brickwork, complex geometric ornaments, pointed arches, and decorative "muqarnas" (honeycomb vaults) elements.

Ottoman Period: Traditions and Trade

After conquests and decline, the city revived under the rule of the Ottoman Empire (from the 16th century). The architecture of this period was more utilitarian but no less expressive. The urban landscape was enriched with elements such as khans (caravanserais), public baths (hammams), and covered markets (souqs). An example is Khan Marjan (1358), built shortly before the Ottoman period but reflecting its commercial spirit. in religious structures, such as the Al-Kadhimiya Mosque, influences of both Ottoman and Persian (Safavid) architecture can be traced, particularly in the design of domes and tile cladding.

20th Century: Modernism and Monumentalism

In the mid-20th century, during the "oil boom" era, Baghdad became a platform for bold architectural experiments. To create a new, modern look for the capital, world-renowned architects were invited, including Walter Gropius, Le Corbusier, and Frank Lloyd Wright. Gropius's designs for the University of Baghdad were partially realised and became a striking example of the International Style. During this same period, Iraqi architect Rifat Chadirji created the Monument to the Unknown Soldier (1959), combining modernist forms with ancient Mesopotamian motifs.

In the late 20th century, monumentalism prevailed in Baghdad's architecture, often with nationalist undertones. The brightest example of this style is the Al-Shaheed Monument (Martyrs' Monument), designed by Ismail Fatah Al Turk. This immense complex consists of two turquoise domes, split and offset, symbolising sacrifice and eternal glory.

Distinguished Personalities in the History of Baghdad

Throughout the centuries, Baghdad has been a centre of science, culture, and power, giving the world numerous geniuses and iconic figures. From founders and rulers to scholars and artists, these individuals not only shaped the city's appearance but also made a huge contribution to world civilisation.

Rulers and Founders

• Abu Ja'far al-Mansur (c. 714–775) — Caliph and founder of Baghdad. It was he who, in 762, laid the foundations of the "City of Peace" (Madinat al-Salam), which became the new capital of the Abbasid Caliphate. His decision to build the city on the banks of the Tigris had immense strategic and economic significance, turning Baghdad into a centre of world trade and culture.
• Harun al-Rashid (c. 763–809) — The fifth caliph of the Abbasid dynasty. His reign is considered the pinnacle of the Golden Age of Islam. He became a legendary figure thanks to the tales of "One Thousand and One Nights", but his real contribution is far more significant. Harun al-Rashid established the "House of Wisdom" (Bayt al-Hikma) in Baghdad—the largest library and academy, which became the premier scientific centre of that time.

Scholars and Thinkers of the Golden Age

• Al-Khwarizmi (c. 783–850) — A great mathematician, astronomer, and geographer. Working in the "House of Wisdom", he wrote the fundamental work "Kitab al-Jabr wa-l-Muqabala", from the title of which the term "algebra" is derived. His works introduced the world to Indian numerals and laid the foundations of modern mathematics.
• Al-Kindi (c. 801–873) — Philosopher, mathematician, music theorist, and physician. Known as the "Philosopher of the Arabs", he was one of the first to systematically study and adapt the works of ancient Greek thinkers, such as Aristotle, for the Arab-Muslim world. His activities in the "House of Wisdom" facilitated the synthesis of ancient wisdom and Islamic thought.

Figures of Art and Literature

• Abu Nuwas (c. 756–814) — One of the greatest poets of classical Arabic literature. He lived at the court of Harun al-Rashid and became famous for his free-spirited lyrics celebrating the joys of city life and love, which was a bold departure from traditional Bedouin poetry. One of the central streets of Baghdad along the Tigris embankment bears his name.

Architects of Modernity

• Rifat Chadirji (1926–2020) — A prominent architect often called the "father of modern Iraqi architecture". He sought to combine traditional Iraqi motifs with the principles of modernism. Among his iconic works is the original "Monument to the Unknown Soldier" in Baghdad (1959).
• Zaha Hadid (1950–2016) — A world-renowned architect and designer of Iraqi origin, and the first woman to be awarded the Pritzker Prize (the architectural equivalent of the Nobel Prize). Born in Baghdad, she later worked in the UK, but her revolutionary projects in the deconstructivist style influenced architecture around the globe.