Kirkuk history

City Origins: From Arrapha to Kirkuk

The history of this site spans approximately five millennia. Modern Kirkuk grew on the site of an ancient settlement that has served as a strategic outpost and a centre of attraction in the region for centuries.

Foundation and First Mentions

The city was founded in the 3rd millennium BC. In ancient cuneiform texts, it is known as Arrapha — the capital of a small but significant kingdom.

• Ancient Roots: The city was originally inhabited by Hurrians. Archaeological evidence suggests that the settlement on the site of the famous Citadel has existed continuously since the Early Bronze Age.
• Historical Records: The first written mentions appear in documents from the Sumerian and Akkadian eras (circa 2400 BC), where the city is described as a fortified centre on the eastern borders of Mesopotamia.

Key Factors of Development

A unique combination of conditions contributed to the transformation of the fortress into a thriving city within the territory of modern Iraq:

• Geography: The city emerged at the foot of the Zagros Mountains. This location made it a natural link ("gateway") between the mountainous regions and the fertile plains of Mesopotamia.
• Trade Routes: Crucial caravan routes connecting southern Mesopotamia with the north and east passed through the city, ensuring a constant flow of goods.
• Strategic Elevation: Construction on an elevated mound (tell) allowed for the creation of a powerful fortification system that protected inhabitants and controlled the surrounding lands for centuries.

Early Cultural and Economic Features

Even in antiquity, Arrapha was not merely a military garrison but a vibrant centre of life.

• Economy: The foundation of prosperity was rich agriculture on irrigated lands and intermediary trade. Grain, textiles, and livestock were exchanged here for metals and artisanal crafts.
• Cultural Diversity: From the very beginning, the city formed as a crossroads of civilizations. The influence of Babylon, Assyria, and Mitanni created a complex cultural environment where different traditions and languages coexisted peacefully.

Key Milestones in Kirkuk's History

The history of Kirkuk is a kaleidoscope of eras and civilizations that have left their mark on the appearance and culture of this ancient city. Below are the main stages of its centuries-old journey.

• 3rd millennium BC — Foundation of the city under the name Arrapha, which becomes the capital of the Hurrian kingdom.
• ~2400 BC — Arrapha becomes part of the Akkadian Empire, one of the first great states of Mesopotamia.
• 15th–14th centuries BC — The city is under the rule of the powerful Mitanni kingdom, as reflected in numerous cuneiform archives.
• ~1250 BC — Kirkuk is conquered by the Assyrian Empire and turns into an important administrative centre for several centuries.
• 615 BC — After the fall of Assyria, the city passes under the control of the Median Empire.
• 6th–4th centuries BC — Arrapha becomes part of the Persian Achaemenid Empire, and later the empire of Alexander the Great.
• 3rd century BC – 3rd century AD — The city, known as Karkha D-Bet Slokh, successively becomes part of the Seleucid state and the Parthian Empire.
• 3rd–7th centuries AD — Kirkuk is under the rule of the Persian Sassanid dynasty and is a notable centre in the region.
• 7th century — The city becomes part of the Arab Caliphate following the Islamic conquests and gradually acquires its modern name.
• Early 16th century — Kirkuk becomes part of the Ottoman Empire, under whose administration it remains for nearly 400 years.
• 1733 — A major battle takes place in the vicinity of the city between the armies of the Ottoman Empire and the Persian commander Nader Shah.
• 1918 — With the end of World War I, Ottoman rule concludes, and the city passes under British control.
• 1927 — Geologists discover a giant oil field in the Kirkuk area, which changes its destiny forever.
• 1934 — Industrial oil production begins, transforming Kirkuk into one of the key economic centres of Iraq and the entire Middle East.

Stages of Socio-Cultural and Infrastructural Development

The development history of Kirkuk is not just a chronology of building walls or drilling wells. It is a path of transformation from a closed settlement into an open administrative, educational, and cultural centre of the region. Important milestones in its formation are linked to changes in status and integration into global processes.

• Railway Integration (1920s). The laying of the railway connecting the city with Baghdad was a major infrastructural breakthrough. This event brought the city out of relative isolation, ensuring reliable passenger and cargo communication with the capital and paving the way for the mass movement of people and goods even before the oil boom.
• Gaining Administrative Status. The transformation of the territory into a separate administrative unit (Governorate) consolidated the city's role as a regional capital. This entailed the creation of government institutions, courts, and departments, forming a stratum of civil servants and intellectuals not directly linked to industry.
• Establishment of an Educational Hub (2003). The founding of the University of Kirkuk was a turning point in recent history. The appearance of a major higher education institution allowed the city to train its own personnel and attract students from all over the country, shifting the focus from a purely industrial image to a scientific and educational one.
• Status of "Capital of Iraqi Culture" (2010). The selection of the city as the cultural capital of Iraq was a recognition of its unique role as a place of peaceful coexistence for various ethnic and linguistic groups. This year was marked by numerous festivals, exhibitions, and literary readings that highlighted the richness of local heritage.
• Joining the UNESCO Creative Cities Network (2021). The designation as a UNESCO "City of Literature" confirmed the international significance of local poetic and writing traditions. This event cemented the city's reputation as a centre of intellectual creativity, where literary traditions in the different languages of the region have intertwined for centuries.

The architectural appearance of Kirkuk represents a multi-layered canvas reflecting millennia of its turbulent history. From an ancient Mesopotamian fortress to a modern industrial hub, the city has preserved iconic structures from different eras that formed its unique urban landscape.

Ancient World and Ottoman Heritage

The urban and historical core of the city is the Kirkuk Citadel — a monumental structure rising on a hill that preserves the cultural layers of ancient civilizations, beginning with the Hurrian Arrapha. The architecture of the citadel represents a classic example of Mesopotamian fortification with massive walls and dense development. For centuries, it was the main administrative and military centre.

The Ottoman period, which lasted about 400 years, had a significant influence on the city's appearance. During this time, key commercial and public spaces were formed. The main features of this period include:

• Ottoman Architecture: It is characterized by a combination of Islamic architectural traditions with influences from Byzantine and Persian architecture. In Kirkuk, this manifested in the construction of mosques, caravanserais, and public buildings.
• Qaysari Bazaar: The brightest example of Ottoman heritage is the covered Qaysari Bazaar, built in the 19th century. This labyrinth of narrow streets and vaulted galleries remains an important commercial and social centre to this day, preserving the historical atmosphere of the old city.

The Age of Oil and Modernization

The discovery of oil in 1927 and the start of its industrial production in 1934 marked a turning point in Kirkuk's urban development. This period brought rapid urbanization and the emergence of completely new architecture:

• Functionalism and Modernism: Starting from the 1940s, new districts designed according to modern standards began to appear in the city. The development of the oil industry stimulated the construction of administrative buildings, hospitals, and residential quarters in the modernist style, characterized by simple geometric forms and the use of concrete and glass.
• New Urban Structure: While the old city around the citadel had a traditional dense and chaotic layout, the new districts received a regular plan with wide streets and functional zoning. This created a contrast between the historical core and the modern parts of Kirkuk.

Today, Kirkuk's architectural landscape continues to evolve, combining ancient monuments, colourful structures of the Ottoman era, and functional buildings of the 20th century, making it a living testament to a rich and multifaceted history.

Prominent Figures Associated with Kirkuk

Throughout its centuries-old history, Kirkuk has been the birthplace and centre of attraction for many prominent figures in culture, science, and public life. The city, located at the crossroads of civilizations, has given the world poets, scholars, and leaders who have left a significant mark on the history of the region.

• Mam Rostam — military and political figure. One of the influential Kurdish leaders of the 20th century, a general who played a key role in the political and military life of the region, especially in events related to Kirkuk in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.
• Ata Terzibashi — literary scholar, historian, and writer (1924–2016). A prominent Iraqi Turkmen intellectual who dedicated his life to studying the history and culture of Kirkuk. His works are considered fundamental for understanding the Turkmen heritage in Iraq.
• Shamsaddin Kuzechi — poet, writer, and researcher. A contemporary cultural figure, head of the Kirkuk Cultural Association, actively involved in studying and promoting Azerbaijani-Kirkuk literary ties and the heritage of Iraqi Turkmen.
• Younis Mahmoud — footballer. One of Iraq's most famous athletes, born in the Kirkuk Governorate. Captain of the national team, he led it to a historic victory in the 2007 AFC Asian Cup, making him a national hero.
• Abdullah Goran — poet (1904–1962). Considered the father of modern Kurdish poetry. Although born in Halabja, his work and influence are closely linked to the cultural revival in Kirkuk and Sulaymaniyah, where he laid the foundations for a new poetic language free from traditional Arabic and Persian forms.
• Jalal Talabani — political figure (1933–2017). Although not a native of Kirkuk, his political career was inextricably linked to this city. As a prominent Kurdish leader and President of Iraq (2005–2014), he played a central role in addressing issues regarding the status and administration of Kirkuk.
• Hijri Dede — poet (1880–1952). A classic of Iraqi Turkmen literature, whose poems, written in the local dialect, reflect the spirit and culture of Kirkuk. His work is an important part of the city's literary heritage.