Erbil history

Erbil, known in antiquity as Arbela, is considered one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. Its history is deeply rooted in ancient times, with the first settlements on this site dating back to at least the 5th millennium BC, and possibly even earlier. The historical heart of the city is the Erbil Citadel — a massive artificial mound (tell) that has grown over centuries through successive generations. The first written mentions of the city, then called Urbilum, appear in Sumerian texts around 2000 BC. Later, during the Assyrian era, Arbela became a significant political and religious centre where the goddess Ishtar was worshipped.

The development and centuries-long prosperity of Erbil were driven by several key factors:

• Geography: The city is strategically located on a fertile plain between the Great and Little Zab rivers, providing its inhabitants with resources and fostering the development of agriculture.
• Trade: Erbil was situated at the intersection of the most important trade routes of antiquity, including a branch of the Great Silk Road. This made it a bustling centre of commerce where caravans carrying goods from the East and West met.
• Political Power: Throughout its history, the city was an important centre for numerous empires, including the Assyrian, Persian, and later the Ottoman Empire. Its fortress held immense military significance, allowing control over the surrounding territories.

In the early period of its history, Erbil was not only a military and commercial hub but also a cultural centre. In Assyrian times, it was renowned as a centre of worship for Ishtar, the goddess of fertility and war. Thanks to its position at the crossroads of civilizations, the city became a melting pot for different cultures and peoples. The city's economy was based on the trade of grain, tobacco, cotton, and traditional crafts such as leatherworking. The ancient market (bazaar) at the foot of the citadel, which still exists today, stands as a testament to Erbil's rich trading history.

Timeline of Key Events

• C. 5000 BC — Establishment of a settlement on the site of the modern Citadel, making Erbil one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world.
• 21st Century BC — First written mention of the city under the name Urbilum in Sumerian cuneiform texts of the Ur dynasty.
• 8th Century BC — The city reaches its peak as a major religious centre of the Assyrian Empire and a place of worship for the goddess Ishtar.
• 331 BC — The famous Battle of Gaugamela takes place in the city's vicinity, where Alexander the Great defeated the army of the Persian King Darius III.
• 1st Century AD — Arbela becomes one of the centres of early Christianity in the East and the seat of a bishop.
• 642 AD — The city is conquered by Muslim forces, marking the beginning of the spread of Islam and Arab culture in the region.
• 1190 — The beginning of the reign of Sultan Muzaffar ad-Din Gökböri, who transformed the city into a thriving architectural and commercial hub.
• 1258 — After the fall of Baghdad, Mongol troops besiege the city, but the Citadel puts up stubborn resistance for a long time.
• 1514 — Following the Battle of Chaldiran, the city comes under the control of the Ottoman Empire, remaining part of it for four centuries.
• 1920 — Following World War I and the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the city becomes part of the mandated and subsequently independent state of Iraq.
• 1970 — Signing of an agreement officially establishing the city's status as the administrative centre of the Kurdistan Autonomous Region.
• 2005 — Opening of the new international airport, symbolizing the economic openness and modernization of the region.
• 2014 — The Erbil Citadel is officially included in the UNESCO World Heritage List, confirming its unique historical value.
• 2021 — Pope Francis visits the city on a historic trip and celebrates Holy Mass at the Franso Hariri Stadium.

Main Stages of Erbil's Formation and Development

The development of Erbil as a metropolis is a journey from a fortified settlement on a hill to a modern economic hub of Iraq. The city has undergone several key transformations that have defined its current architectural and cultural appearance.

• Formation of the Urban Core (5th millennium BC)
  Significance: The establishment of the Citadel as a centre for safe habitation. The unique urban structure of the "tell" (artificial mound) allowed the city to exist continuously, building cultural layers upon one another over millennia.
• Assyrian Religious Centre (1st millennium BC)
  Significance: The status of the sacred city of the goddess Ishtar turned Arbela into a destination for pilgrims, which fostered cultural exchange and strengthened the city's political influence in the region.
• Trade Hub on the Silk Road (Middle Ages)
  Significance: Its geographical position at the intersection of caravan routes laid the city's economic foundation. The development of markets at the foot of the fortress formed a class of merchants and artisans who defined the economic structure for centuries to come.
• Urban Flourishing under the Atabegs (12th–13th centuries)
  Significance: Expansion of construction beyond the fortress walls. The building of public edifices, madrasas, and the famous Mudhafaria Minaret marked the city's transformation into a major centre of Islamic architecture and education.
• Ottoman Commercial Consolidation (19th century)
  Significance: The finalization of the structure of the famous Qaysari Bazaar. The organization of trading rows and warehouses strengthened the city's role as the primary market for agricultural produce and artisanal goods in the region.
• Gaining Capital Status (1970)
  Significance: Official recognition of Erbil as the administrative centre of the Kurdistan Autonomous Region launched the creation of modern state infrastructure, universities, and residential areas for the growing population.
• Investment Boom and Urbanization (post-2003)
  Significance: A radical transformation of the urban landscape thanks to the influx of oil revenues and foreign investment. The construction of ring roads, high-rise business centres, and elite residential complexes has brought the city's appearance closer to the modern metropolises of the Arabian Gulf.
• International Recognition of Heritage (2014)
  Significance: The inclusion of the Citadel in the UNESCO World Heritage List launched large-scale revitalization processes in the historic centre, reorienting part of the city's economy towards cultural tourism.

Architectural Appearance and Development of Erbil

Erbil's architecture represents a unique layering of eras, where ancient urban planning traditions coexist with ultra-modern projects. The city's development proceeded in concentric circles from its historic core — the Citadel, and each era has left its recognizable mark on its appearance.

Ancient World and Islamic Middle Ages: The Citadel and its Surroundings

For millennia, the heart of the city has been the Erbil Citadel — an ancient settlement on an artificial mound (tell), recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage site. Its urban structure is a classic example of an Islamic medieval city: a labyrinth of narrow alleyways, houses with inner courtyards tightly packed together, and a formidable outer wall formed by the facades of the buildings themselves. At the foot of the citadel lies the Qaysari Bazaar, established back in the 14th century, which remains a bustling trading centre today, preserving its historical layout. An outstanding monument of this era is the Mudhafaria Minaret (12th-13th centuries), also known as the Choli Minaret — all that remains of a grand mosque from the Atabeg reign. Its elegant cylindrical shaft, adorned with brick ornamentation and Kufic inscriptions, serves as a striking example of Ayyubid-period architecture.

Ottoman Period and Early 20th Century

During the Ottoman era, the city began to expand beyond the citadel. The architecture of this time is mainly represented in the buildings within the fortress itself, where most surviving houses date back to the 19th and early 20th centuries, as well as in the structure of the bazaar. The fan-shaped layout of streets radiating from the citadel gates is also characteristic of the late Ottoman period. Buildings were constructed from traditional materials such as baked brick, and the architecture was functional, meeting the needs of a merchant and artisan city.

Modern Transformation: Modernism and Contemporary Architecture

Erbil experienced a true architectural boom after 2003, when the city began to develop rapidly as an economic and political centre. This period was marked by a departure from traditional forms and the emergence of architecture in modernist and postmodernist styles. The urban fabric began to expand along new ring roads (60m, 100m, 120m Ring Road), which became the framework for modern districts. Iconic projects appeared that changed the skyline: high-rise office buildings of glass and steel, such as Erbil Tower, luxurious residential complexes (e.g., Dream City, Empire World), and large shopping and entertainment centres. This new architecture reflects global trends and symbolizes the economic growth and ambitions of modern Erbil, creating a striking contrast with its ancient historic centre.

Notable Figures Associated with Erbil

Over its multi-millennial history, Erbil (ancient Arbela) has been the birthplace and centre of activity for many prominent rulers, scholars, poets, and politicians who have left a significant mark on history and culture.

• Aphrahat the Persian Sage (c. 270–345 AD) — An early Christian writer and ascetic of the 4th century, one of the fathers of Syriac church literature. Although his exact birthplace is unknown, he was a bishop and abbot of the Mar Mattai Monastery near Mosul, and his activities took place in the region where Arbela was the capital. His works are an important source on the history of Christianity in the Persian Empire.
• Muzaffar ad-Din Gökböri (1154–1233 AD) — Ruler of Erbil from the Begteginid dynasty and brother-in-law of the famous Saladin. His reign (1190–1233) is considered the "Golden Age" of medieval Erbil. He was known as a patron of the sciences, a builder of hospitals and mosques, and a philanthropist who ransomed captives. He is credited with initiating the tradition of widely celebrating the Mawlid (the birthday of the Prophet Muhammad).
• Ibn Khallikan (1211–1282 AD) — One of the most famous Islamic historians and biographers of the Middle Ages. He was born in Erbil to a noble family and received his primary education there. His magnum opus, "Deaths of Eminent Men and the Sons of the Epoch", is a monumental biographical dictionary that remains an invaluable source on the history of the Islamic world.
• Dildar (Yunis Reuf) (1918–1948 AD) — A Kurdish poet and political activist, author of the lyrics to the Kurdish national anthem "Oh, Enemy!" (Ey Reqîb). Although born in the town of Koy Sanjaq, his life and work were closely linked to Erbil, where he studied and where many of his poems were published. His poetry played a key role in shaping modern Kurdish national consciousness.
• Sami Abdulrahman (1933–2004 AD) — A prominent Kurdish political figure, engineer, and former Deputy Prime Minister of the Kurdistan Regional Government. He dedicated his life to fighting for Kurdish rights and rebuilding the region. He was tragically killed in a terrorist attack in Erbil on February 1, 2004. The city's largest park is named in his honour — one of the main achievements of his efforts to beautify the capital.