Erzurum history

Foundation and First Mentions

The territory of modern Erzurum has been inhabited since deep antiquity, but its history as a fortified urban centre began in the classical era. Initially, the settlement was known as Karin. A decisive moment in its destiny was the 5th century AD (around 415–420), when the Byzantine Emperor Theodosius II, realising the vulnerability of the eastern borders, ordered the construction of powerful fortifications here. The city was renamed Theodosiopolis and became the empire's main military bastion in the region for centuries.

Key Factors of Development

The formation of the city as a significant node on the regional map was determined by three main circumstances:

• Geographical Location: Situated on a high mountain plateau (almost 2,000 metres above sea level), the city controlled vital mountain passes. This made it the natural "key" to Anatolia for any conquerors coming from the East.
• Political Role: As a border outpost, the city was constantly the focus of rulers—first Rome and Byzantium, and later the Arab Caliphate and Turkish beyliks. Power over it meant control over the entire region.
• Transit Trade: Branches of the Great Silk Road and routes connecting the Black Sea with Persia passed through the city. This ensured a constant influx of goods, wealth, and travellers, despite frequent wars.

Early Cultural and Economic Features

In the early period, the city's economy had a militarised character: blacksmithing, weapon workshops, and garrison services flourished here. However, thanks to trade, the city quickly became a melting pot of cultures. Traditions of the local population, Byzantine influence, and later, Islamic art mixed here. This synthesis laid the foundation for a unique architectural style that flourished in the territory of modern Turkey during the Seljuk era, transforming a stern fortress into a centre of science and stone architecture.

Key Milestones in the History of Erzurum

The history of Erzurum is rich in events reflecting its strategic importance at the crossroads of great empires. The city changed hands many times, which left a deep mark on its culture and architecture.

• 4th century AD — On the site of the ancient Armenian settlement of Karin, the Romans, and subsequently the Byzantines, found the powerful fortress of Theodosiopolis to protect the empire's eastern borders.
• 647 — The city is conquered for the first time by Arabs, who name it Kalikala, after which it becomes a subject of struggle between Byzantium and the Arab Caliphate for several centuries.
• 1048-1049 — After the destruction of the neighbouring city of Ardzn by the Seljuks, its inhabitants migrate to Theodosiopolis, which from then on receives the name Ardzn-Rum, transforming into Erzurum.
• 1071 — Following the Seljuk victory at the Battle of Manzikert, the city finally passes under their control, beginning a new, Turkic chapter in its history.
• 1179 — The Grand Mosque (Ulu Cami) is built, one of the oldest and most significant monuments of Seljuk architecture in the city.
• 1242 — Mongol troops led by Baiju capture and partially destroy Erzurum.
• 1253 — The famous Twin Minaret Madrasa (Çifte Minareli Medrese) is founded, becoming the symbol of the city and an outstanding example of Seljuk architecture.
• 1514 — During the Ottoman-Persian wars, the Ottoman Sultan Selim I conquers the city, and Erzurum becomes an important outpost of the Ottoman Empire in the east.
• 1829 — During the Russo-Turkish War, the city is occupied for the first time by Russian troops under the command of General Paskevich; during this time, Alexander Pushkin visits Erzurum.
• 1878 — Russian troops occupy Erzurum again following another Russo-Turkish war, but soon return it to the Ottoman Empire according to the Treaty of Berlin.
• 1916 — During World War I, the Russian Caucasus Army under the command of General Yudenich conducts a successful Erzurum operation and takes the city by storm.
• 1919 — The Erzurum Congress takes place in the city under the chairmanship of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, becoming one of the key events in the Turkish War of Independence.
• 1957 — Atatürk University opens in Erzurum, turning the city into a major educational and scientific centre of eastern Turkey.

Main Stages of Development

The evolution of Erzurum is a story of transformation from a stern border fortress into a modern centre of education and tourism. Each era brought new functions to the city, changing its economic structure and architectural appearance.

• Foundation of Theodosiopolis (5th century)
  A fundamental stage of urban planning. The Byzantines turned a small settlement into the most powerful fortification hub of the East. The construction of fortress walls defined the layout of the old city, which is still legible today, securing its status as the "shield of the empire".
• Seljuk Renaissance (12th–13th centuries)
  The period of highest cultural flourishing. The city became the capital of the Saltukid beylik, and then an important centre of the Seljuk Sultanate. During this time, monumental madrasas and mausoleums were erected, turning the military outpost into a hearth of Islamic science and unique stone architecture.
• Silk Road Trade Hub
  Thanks to its advantageous location at the intersection of routes from Persia to the Black Sea, the city became a prosperous customs point. The economic importance of this period was reflected in the construction of numerous inns (khans) and the development of crafts, especially metalworking.
• Ottoman Integration (16th century)
  After becoming part of the Ottoman Empire, the city established itself as the administrative centre of the eyalet. This led to a new round of urban planning: mosques in the classical Ottoman style, hammams, and covered markets were erected, integrating the city into the imperial economic system.
• Railway Connection (1939)
  The arrival of the railway became a powerful driver for the economy in the republican period. This event brought the region out of isolation, simplified the logistics of goods and passengers, connecting eastern Turkey with Ankara and Istanbul.
• Establishment of Atatürk University (1957)
  The opening of one of the oldest and largest universities in Eastern Anatolia radically changed the demography and atmosphere of the city. The influx of students and academics stimulated the construction of new districts, the development of the service sector, and cultural life.
• Emergence as a Winter Tourism Centre (2000s – Present)
  Investments in the Palandöken ski resort and the hosting of the 2011 Winter Universiade reoriented the city's economy. The construction of international-class hotels and sports infrastructure has made tourism a key industry of modern development.

The architectural appearance of Erzurum is a visible chronicle of its centuries-old history, in which the role of a military fortress and a trade crossroads left a deep mark. Here, Byzantine austerity was replaced by the elegance of Seljuk architecture, and then gave way to Ottoman pragmatism and, finally, modern functionalism.

Byzantine Period: The Fortress City

In the Roman and Byzantine eras, when the city was known as Theodosiopolis, its architectural appearance was determined primarily by its military function. The main structure became the powerful Erzurum Castle, founded in the 5th century to protect the eastern borders of the empire. The foundations of these ancient fortifications, rebuilt many times in subsequent centuries, still form the historical centre of the city.

Seljuk Period (12th-13th Centuries): The "Golden Age" of Architecture

The era of the Seljuk Turks became a period of the highest architectural flourishing for Erzurum. It was then that iconic monuments were created, defining the unique look of the city. Instead of the light forms characteristic of later Ottoman architecture, a monumental and heavy Seljuk style dominates here. This period gifted the city with true masterpieces:

• Twin Minaret Madrasa (Çifte Minareli Medrese): Built in the 13th century, this madrasa with twin minarets is the symbol of Erzurum. It is distinguished by a grandiose portal, richly decorated with intricate stone carving, in which one can see floral ornaments and symbolic images, such as the tree of life.
• Grand Mosque (Ulu Cami): Erected in 1179, this mosque represents a classic example of an early Seljuk hypostyle mosque with numerous columns supporting the vaults.
• Three Tombs (Üç Kümbetler): This complex of tombs is a characteristic example of Seljuk funerary architecture. The largest of the mausoleums, presumably belonging to Emir Saltuk, stands out with its conical dome and relief images of animals on the walls.

Ottoman and Modern Periods

With its incorporation into the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century, Erzurum's architecture acquired a more utilitarian character, reflecting its role as a military and trade centre. During this period, numerous mosques were built, such as the Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque, caravanserais for merchants, and hammams. In the 20th and 21st centuries, urban development underwent significant changes. Administrative buildings in the early republican style appeared, and the recent development of Erzurum as a centre of winter tourism led to the construction of modern hotels and sports infrastructure at the Palandöken ski resort. Nevertheless, the historical core of the city, formed over centuries, continues to remain its main asset.

Distinguished Figures Associated with Erzurum

Throughout its rich history, Erzurum has been the birthplace and centre of attraction for many significant figures who left a mark on the culture, politics, and public life of Turkey. These personalities reflect the multifaceted character of the city—from ancient rulers and folk heroes to modern politicians and artists.

• Nene Hatun (1857–1955) — A national heroine of Turkey, a symbol of courage and patriotism. During the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, as a young mother, she inspired the city's residents to defend the Aziziye Fort from attacking troops. Armed with an axe and her fallen brother's rifle, she became one of the leaders of the people's militia.
• Ibrahim Hakki Erzurumi (1703–1781) — An outstanding Ottoman polymath scholar, Sufi philosopher, poet, and astronomer. His main work, "Marifetname" ("Book of Knowledge"), is an extensive encyclopedia covering theology, astronomy, mathematics, anatomy, and other sciences of his time. He is also known for creating a unique light mechanism in the tomb of his teacher in Siirt.
• Emir Saltuk (11th–12th centuries) — The founder of the Saltukid dynasty, the first Turkic beylik to emerge in Anatolia after the Battle of Manzikert. He ruled from Erzurum, turning the city into the capital of his emirate and initiating its development as an important centre of Seljuk culture. His presumed tomb is part of the famous "Three Tombs" architectural complex.
• Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881–1938) — The founder and first president of the Republic of Turkey. Although he was not a native of the city, his name is inextricably linked with Erzurum. It was here in 1919 that the Erzurum Congress took place under his chairmanship—a key event of the War of Independence, where the foundations of national sovereignty and the country's territorial integrity were laid.
• Cemal Gürsel (1895–1966) — A Turkish military and state figure, the fourth president of Turkey. A native of Erzurum, he had a brilliant military career, rising to the commander of the land forces. After the 1960 coup d'état, he led the country, serving as president from 1961 to 1966.
• Arif Sağ (born 1945) — One of the most famous Turkish musicians, a virtuoso performer on the saz (bağlama), composer, and former member of parliament. Born in a village near Erzurum, he made a huge contribution to the popularisation of Turkish folk music both within the country and abroad.